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THE 


HISTORY  OF  MEDICINE 


UNITED  STATES  , 

A 


A    COLLECTION     OF    FACTS    AND     DOCUMENTS     RELATING    TO    THE 

HISTORY   OF   MEDICAL   SCIENCE    IN   THIS   COUNTRY,   FROM 

THE    EARLIEST   ENGLISH   COLONIZATION  TO 

THE   YEAR   1800 

WITH    A   SUPPLEMENTAL    CHAPTER    ON 

THE  DISCO  VER  V  OF  ANESTHESIA 


BY 

FRANCIS   RANDOLPH    PACKARD,  M.D. 
ILLUSTRATED 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 
1901 


Copyright,  1901 

BY 

Francis  Randolph  Packard 


PRINTED    BY  J.   B.  LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY,  PHILADELPHIA,   U.  S.  A. 


Uo  tbe  /IDemor^ 

of 

nni?  Another 


347563 


PREFACE. 


An  effort  has  been  made  in  the  following  pages  to 
collect  as  many  facts  as  possible  regarding  the  rise  of 
medical  science  in  this  country.  But  few  data  are  ac- 
cessible on  the  subject,  but  I  trust  that  this  book  may 
have  the  effect  of  stimulating  others  to  work  in  the 
same  direction.  Although  there  have  been  many  books 
and  essays  published  regarding  the  local  medical  his- 
tory of  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  I  know 
of  no  other  effort  in  the  direction  of  a  general  history 
of  early  medicine.  The  work  has  occupied  many  years, 
and  has  been  truly  a  labor  of  love  to  the  author,  who 
hopes  it  may  possess  a  corresponding  interest  to  others. 
It  should  be  regarded  rather  as  a  series  of  essays  and 
compilations,  than  in  the  light  of  a  continuous  histori- 
cal work. 

I  have  received  help  in  my  work  from  too  many 
sources  to  admit  of  complete  acknowledgment  in  the 
present  place.  I  desire,  however,  to  express  my  thanks 
to  Mr.  C.  C.  Febiger  for  the  most  kindly  and  practical 
advice  in  its  preparation;  to  Dr.  T.  G.  Morton. 
Mr.  D.  D.  Test,  and  the  Board  of  Managers  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Hospital,  for  their  liberality  in  permitting 
me  to  make  free  use  of  the  plates  used  in  the  history 

5 


6  PREFACE. 

of  that  institution ;  and  to  the  editors  of  the  Philadelphia 
Medical  Journal,  the  Journal  of  the  American  Medical 
Association,  and  the  Carolina  Medical  Journal,  for  per- 
mission to  reprint  matter  which  had  appeared  in  their 
columns.  My  thanks  are  also  due  to  Dr.  William  F. 
Norris,  of  Philadelphia,  who  kindly  permitted  me  to 
reproduce  the  pictures  of  Dr.  Chovet  and  Dr.  Morgan 
which  are  contained  in  the  "  Early  History  of  Medicine 
in  Philadelphia,"  and  to  Dr.  Eugene  F.  Cordell,  of 
Baltimore,  who  allowed  me  to  reproduce  the  picture  of 
Dr.  Frederick  Wiesenthal  which  accompanied  his  ac- 
count of  that  anatomist  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital 
Bulletin. 

Francis  Randolph  Packard. 


CONTENTS. 


Preface 


CHAPTER    I. 
Medical  Events  connected  with   the   Early  History  of  the 

English  Colonies  in  America 1 1 

CHAPTER    II. 
Epidemic  Sickness  and  Mortality  in  North  America  from  its 

Earliest  Discovery  by  the  English  to  the  Year  1800  .   .      64 

CHAPTER    III. 
Epidemic  Sickness  and  Mortality  in  North  America  from  its 
Earliest   Discovery   by   the   English   to   the  Year    1800 
(Continued) no 

CHAPTER    IV. 
Medical  Education  before  the  Foundation  of  Medical  Schools    156 

CHAPTER    V. 
The  Earliest  Medical  Schools  in  the  United  States    ....    190 

CHAPTER    VI. 
The  Medical  Profession  in  the  War  for  Independence     .    .    .    233 

CHAPTER    Vll. 

The  Earliest  Hospitals .321 

7 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

AL   Societies   founded 
1800 375 


PAGE 

History  of  the  Medical   Societies   founded  before  the  Year 


CHAPTER    IX. 
Pre-Revolutionary  Medical  Bibliography 429 

CHAPTER    X. 

Medical  Legislation  in  the  Colonies .    452 

CHAPTER    XI. 
The  Discovery  of  Anesthesia  . 466 


APPENDICES. 

A.  The  Examination  of  Dr.  Church 483 

B.  Dr.  John  Morgan's  Memorial 496 

C.  The    Pennsylvania    Hospital,    and    Reminiscences    of    the 

Physicians   and    Surgeons    who    have    served   it.     By 
Dr.  Charles  D.  Meigs 511 

D.  List  of  Authorities 520 

E.  Medical  Societies   founded  in  the  United  States  before 

the  Year  1825 525 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

The   Pennsylvania  Hospital Frontispiece. 

Portrait  of  Dr.  James  Lloyd 88 

Portraits  of  Drs.  Redman,  Kuhn,  and  Hutchinson Il8 

Portrait  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush 132 

Portrait   of  Dr.   Ralph   Asheton 156 

Medical  Certificates  of  Dr.  Asheton's 158 

Portrait  of  Dr.  Charles  Frederick  Wiesenthal 165 

Portraits  of  Drs.  Cadwalader  and  William  Shippen,  Jr 168 

Portrait  of  Dr.  Abraham  Chovet 186 

Surgeons'   Hall,    Philadelphia 188 

Portrait  of  Dr.  John  Morgan 190 

Portrait  of  Dr.  Physick 216 

Portrait  of  Dr.    Samuel   Bard 218 

Portrait  of  Dr.  John  Warren 248 

Portrait  of  Dr.  James  Thacher 252 

Fac-simile  of  the  Contract  between  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital 

and  the  Continental  Army  Surgeons,  for  the  Use  of  the  Elab- 

oratory  of  the  Hospital,  by  the  latter 278 

Portrait   of  Dr.  James   Tilton 290 

Portraits  of  Drs.  Phineas  Bond  and  Lloyd  Zachary 330 

Students'  Certificate  conferring  the  Right  to  attend  the  Practice 

of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital 352 

The  Seal  and  Corner-stone  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital 358 

Portrait  of  Dr.  Eneas  Munson 406 

Fac-simile  of  the  First  Medical  Publication  in  the  Colonies  of 

North   America 430 

Portrait  of  Dr.  Crawford  W.  Long 467 

Portrait  of  W.  T.  G.  Morton 473 

The  First  Public  Demonstration  of  Ether  Anaesthetization 477 

9 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MEDICINE 


IN 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


CHAPTER   I. 

MEDICAL  EVENTS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  EARLY  HISTORY 
OF  THE  ENGLISH   COLONIES  IN  AMERICA. 

In  the  records  of  the  settlement  of  this  country  we 
find  but  few  instances  in  which  the  expedition  was  ac- 
companied by  a  regularly  appointed  physician  or  surgeon. 

The  Court  of  Assistants  in  London  on  March  5,  1682, 
made  the  following  appointments :  ^ 

"  A  Proposicon  beeinge  made  to  Intertayne  a  surgeon  for  [the] 
plantacon  Mr.  Pratt  was  ppounded  as  an  abell  man  vp[on]  theis 
Condicons  Nameley  That  40/fc  should  bee  allowed  him  viz  for  his 
Chest  255  the  Rest  [for]  his  owne  sallery  for  the  first  yeere  prouided 
yt  he  [continue]  3  yeeres  the  Comp.  to  bee  at  Charge  of  transport- 
ing his  wiffe  &  a  ch[ild]  have  20'  a  yeere  for  the  other  2  yeeres  & 
to  build  him  a  ho[use  at]  the  Comp  Chardge  &  to  allott  him  100 
acrs  of  ground  but  if  he  stay  but  one  yeere  then  the  comp  to  bee 
at  Chardge  of  his  bringing  back  for  England  &  he  to  Leaue  his 
sru[ant]  and  the  Chist  for  the  Comp  service." 

"  Agreed  wth  Robert  Morly  sruant  to  Mr.  Andrew  Matthewes 
late  barber  surgeon  to  srve  the  Comp.  in  Newe  England  for  three 
y[ears]  the  first  yeere  to  have  20  nobles  the  second  yeere  (30)  and 
the  third  20  markes,  to  serve  as  a  barber  &  a  surgeon  [on  all] 
occasyons  belonging  to  his  Calling  to  aney  of  this  [Company]  that 
are  planters  or   there   servants,  and   for  his    [chest  and]    all   in  it 

*       '  Green's  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts,  p.  16. 

II 


12  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

whereof  he  hath  geeuen  an  Inventory  .  .  .  sight  of  It  bee  approoved 

ffive  pounds  Is and  payd  to  him  ffor  it  &  the  same  to  bee  fo(rth- 

with  payd)." ' 

We  know  that  Pratt  settled  in  Cambridge  and  pursued 
his  profession  there.  His  untimely  end  is  recorded  by 
Governor  Winthrop.^  It  appears  that  in  1645  ^^  sailed 
for  Spain  in  a  vessel  built  and  sailed  by  Thomas  Hawkins, 
of  Boston,  and  that  when  in  sight  of  the  Spanish  coast 
they  struck  a  rock,  the  vessel  sank,  and  Pratt  perished. 
Winthrop  says  of  him,  "  He  was  above  sixty  years  of 
age,  an  experienced  surgeon,  who  had  lived  in  New  Eng- 
land many  years,  and  was  of  the  first  church  at  Cam- 
bridge in  Mr.  Hooker's  time,  and  had  good  practice  and 
wanted  nothing.  But  he  had  long  been  discontented 
because  his  employment  was  not  so  profitable  to  himself 
as  he  desired,  and  it  is  like  he  feared  lest  he  should  fall 
into  want  in  his  old  age." 

In  April,  1629,  the  "  Governor  and  Company  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  in  New  England"  issued  a  general 
letter  addressed  to  John  Endicott,  the  leader  of  the  set- 
tlers at  Salem,  in  which  they  informed  him  that  they  had 
agreed  with  Lambert  Wilson,  chirurgeon,  that  he  should 
act  as  surgeon  to  the  settlers,  and  also  to  the  neighboring 
Indian  tribes,  for  three  years,  and  he  further  engaged 
to  give  a  medical  training  to  one  or  more  of  the  young 
men  of  the  colony. 

The  colony  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  was  the  first  set- 
tlement permanently  established  by  the  English  in  North 
America,  having  been  first  settled  in  1607. 
,     Toner  ^  mentions  Dr.  Thomas  Wootton  as  among  the 

'^  General  Court  Records,  i.  3a. 
^  History  of  New  England. 

■*  Contributions  to  the  Annals  of  Medical  Progress  and  Medical 
Education  in  the  United  States,  etc. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  13 

first  colonists  at  Jamestown,  and  speaks  of  him  as  sur- 
geon-general of  the  colony.  He  endured  many  privations 
along  with  his  fellow-emigrants,  their  food-supplies 
giving  out  and  they  being  obliged  to  subsist  themselves 
solely  on  crabs  and  sturgeon  for  a  long  time. 

One  year  after  the  founding  of  Jamestown  Dr.  Walter 
Russel  arrived  there.  He  accompanied  the  famous  Cap- 
tain John  Smith  on  one  of  his  numerous  voyages  of  ex- 
ploration up  the  various  rivers  and  bays  of  the  coast  of 
Virginia,  and  when  the  doughty  captain  sustained  some 
injuries  Dr.  Russel  attended  him.  He  also  attended  an 
Indian  chief  who  had  a  gunshot  wound  of  the  knee. 

A  certain  Dr.  Anthony  Bagnall  was  surgeon  to  the 
fort  at  Jamestown  in  1608  and  accompanied  Captain 
Smith  on  a  voyage  from  Jamestown  to  Nausamond, 
which  is  now  the  city  of  Norfolk.  Once,  while  making 
a  professional  call.  Dr.  Bagnall  was  shot  at  by  an  Indian, 
the  arrow  passing  through  his  hat,  but  fortunately  not 
injuring  him. 

None  of  these  physicians  stayed  long  in  the  colony, 
however,  for  in  1609  Captain  Smith  was  injured  by  the 
explosion  of  some  gunpowder,  and  was  obliged  to  return 
to  England  for  surgical  treatment,  "  For  there  was 
neither  chirurgeon  nor  chirurgery  at  the  fort."  ^ 

Dr.  Lawrence  Bohun  studied  medicine  in  the  Low 
Countries  and  afterwards  went  to  Virginia,  arriving  there 
in  1610,  and  was  physician-general  of  the  colony  in  161 1. 
When  Lord  Delaware  was  obliged  to  leave  Virginia  and 
go  to  the  West  Indies  for  his  health,  in  March,  161 1, 
Dr.  Bohun  accompanied  him  in  a  professional  capacity. 
The  doctor  was  killed  in  a  fight  with  a  Spanish  war- 
ship. 

After  his  death  Dr.  John  Pot,  who  was  subsequently 
made  governor  of  the  colony  for  a  short  time  in  1628, 


14  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

was    appointed    physician-general,    having   been    recom- 
mended for  that  position  by  Dr.  Gulstone.^ 

There  is  mention  in  the  early  annals  of  New  York  of 
several  medical  men  who  accompanied  ships  in  the  offi- 
cial capacity  of  surgeons,  but  whether  they  were  settled 
in  the  colony  in  the  same  capacity  is  doubtful.  Thus, 
Hermain  Mynderts  Van  de  Bogaerdet  came  out  as  a 
surgeon  of  the  ship  "  Endragh,"  in  1631,  and  William 
Deeping  was  surgeon  to  the  ship  "  William,"  of  London, 
which  was  engaged  in  trading  in  the  Hudson  River  in 

Toner  ®  quotes  from  the  charter  given  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company  by  the  States-General  the  following: 

"  The  patroons  and  colonists  shall,  in  particular,  and  in  the 
speediest  manner,  endeavor  to  find  ways  and  means  whereby  they 
may  support  a  minister,  and  a  schoolmaster,  that  thus  the  service 
of  God  and  zeal  for  religion  may  not  grow  cool  and  be  neglected 
among  them,  and  that  they  do  for  the  first  procure  a  comforter 
for  the  sick." 

Likewise  he  quotes  from  a  law  submitted  by  the  Direc- 
tors in  1738  the  following  section,  which  provides 

"  For  the  maintenance  of  preachers,  comforters  of  the  sick, 
schoolmasters,  and  similar  necessary  officers,  each  householder  and 
inhabitant  shall  bear  such  contributions  and  public  charge  as  shall 
hereafter  be  considered  proper." 

In  Pennsylvania  the  earliest  settlements  were  made  by 
the  Swedes  and  Dutch.  In  1638,  Jan  Peterson,  of  Alfen- 
dolft,  was  "  barber"  to  one  of  the  colonies  of  Swedes  on 
the  Delaware,  his  salary  being  ten  guilders  a  month. 

The  years    1642,    1657,   and    1658   were  very  sickly. 

"  All  these  facts  about  the  earliest  physicians  in  Virginia  are 
derived  by  Toner  from  Stith's  "  History  of  Virginia"  and  the 
"  History  of  the  Virginia  Company  of  London." 

°  Loc.  cit. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  15 

Norris  ^  quotes  the  following  from  a  letter  written  in 
1658  by  Alricks,  the  Director  of  the  Colony  of  New 
Amstel  (Newcastle)  on  the  Delaware: 

"  Our  barber  surgeon  died,  and  another  well  acquainted  with  his 
profession  is  very  sick." 

In  1650  the  governor  was  notified  that  the  company 
"  are  much  in  want  of  a  surgeon,"  and  Peter  Tyneman 
wishes  the  position.  In  1657  one  Jan  Costing  was  sur- 
geon at  New  Amstel. 

The  following  letter,  written  October  10,  1658,  is  re- 
printed by  Henry,^  and  gives  us  a  little  insight  into  some 
of  the  medical  affairs  of  the  time.  It  is  from  one  of  the 
Dutch  colonists,  William  van  Raenberg,  who  came  over 
as  surgeon,  and  puts  forth  sundry  claims  against  people 
whom  he  attended  on  the  passage,  inasmuch  as  his  wages 
did  not  run  at  that  time  and  on  the  voyage,  and  he  used 
his  own  provisions. 

"  There  were  on  board  the  ship  considerable  sickness,  accidents 
and  hardships  in  consequence  of  a  tedious  voyage.  One  hundred 
souls  required  a  hogshead  or  two  of  French  wine  and  one  of 
brandy,  and  a  tub  of  prunes  had  also  to  be  furnished  for  refresh- 
ment and  comfort  to  those  sick  of  scurvy  and  suffering  from 
other  troubles,  thro'  the  protracted  voyage ;  for,  from  want  thereof 
the  people  became  so  low  that  death  followed,  which  is  a  pretty 
serious  matter.  Here,  on  shore,  I  see  clearly  that  the  poor,  weak, 
sick  or  indigent,  sometimes  have  need  necessarily  of  this  or  that 
to  support  them,  which  one  cannot  easily,  or  will  not,  refuse ;  though 
it  be  sometimes  but  a  spoonful,  frequently  repeated,  it  amounts 
to  more  than  is  supposed.  The  barber  also  speaks  of  a  house 
which  Master  Jan  occupied  being  too  small  for  him ;  he  hath  a 
wife,  servant  and  child  or  children  also.  If  he  hire,  as  he  says, 
at  the  expense  of  the  city,  he  shall  be  obliged  to  show  a  paper  to 
that  effect." 


'  Early  History  of  Medicine  in  Philadelphia. 
'History  of  Medicine  in  Philadelphia. 


i6  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

Norris  ^  mentions  John  Goodson,  "  Chirurgeon  to  the 
Society  of  Free  Traders,"  as  probably  the  first  practising 
physician  in  Pennsylvania.  Norris  says  nothing  is 
known  of  him  save  his  removal  to  Philadelphia  from 
Upland  after  short  residence  in  the  latter  place,  and  that 
he  came  from  London  and  was  a  man  of  merit.  He  came 
to  Pennsylvania  shortly  before  the  arrival  of  William 
Penn. 

I  have  gathered  together  as  much  information  as  I 
could  regarding  those  who  practised  medicine  in  the  in- 
fancy of  the  several  colonies.  There  is  not  in  reality 
much  available,  but  it  is  of  great  interest,  as  those  men 
laid  the  seed  of  future  medical  progress  in  this  country, 
and  many  of  them  seem  to  have  been  possessed  of  much 
ability  and  medical  learning,  such  as  it  was  in  their  day. 
In  Massachusetts  especially  we  find  many  colonists  who 
used  their  "  skill  in  physick"  for  the  benefit  of  their  fel- 
lows. Let  us  begin,  then,  with  that  colony,  and,  after 
having  considered  the  physicians  of  its  early  days,  pro- 
ceed to  the  consideration  of  the  physicians  of  the  various 
other  settlements. 

The  earliest  practitioner  of  medicine  in  Massachusetts 
was  Samuel  Fuller,  who  was  among  the  passengers  on 
the  "  Mayflower"  in  1620.  He  was  a  deacon  of  the 
church  at  Plymouth,  and  is  continually  referred  to  in  the 
ancient  records  as  the  surgeon  of  the  settlement,  although 
he  held  no  medical  diploma,  nor  was  his  position  as  such 
officially  recognized.  He  had  been  deacon  in  the  Rev. 
John  Robinson's  church  in  Leyden,  and  when  he  came 
to  this  country  he  made  his  home  at  Plymouth,  but  he 
served  as  medical  adviser  to  all  the  colonies  about  that 
part  of  Massachusetts  Bay.     After  Endicott's  arrival  in 

•  Loc.  cit. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  17 

1628  at  Salem  many  of  the  people  in  his  colony  were 
sick  of  the  scurvy,  and  a  number  died  from  lack  of  proper 
food  and  shelter.  Endicott  requested  Fuller  to  come 
over  from  Plymouth  and  help  the  people  of  Charlestown 
and  Salem  in  their  distress,  a  request  with  which  he 
cheerfully  complied.  His  first  visit  to  Salem  was  in  1628, 
and  he  went  there  again  in  1629,  the  occasion  of  his 
second  visit  being  an  outbreak  of  sickness  among  some 
recently  arrived  emigrants.  On  his  return  to  Plymouth 
Governor  Endicott  addressed  a  letter  to  Governor  Brad- 
ford on  May  11,  1629,  in  which  he  says, — 

"  I  acknowledge  myself  much  bound  to  you  for  your  kind  love 
and  care  in  sending  Mr.  Fuller  among  us,  and  rejoice  much  that 
I  am  by  him  satisfied  touching  your  judgements  of  the  outward 
form  of  God's  worship.  It  is  as  far  as  I  can  gather,  no  other  than 
is  warranted  by  the  evidence  of  truth,  and  the  same  which  I  have 
professed  and  maintained  ever  since  the  Lord  in  mercy  revealed 
himself  unto  me,  being  far  from  the  common  report  that  has  been 
spread  of  you  touching  that  particular."  " 

From  which  it  would  appear  that  the  good  deacon  had 
exercised  spiritual  as  well  as  physical  healing  skill  to 
bring  about  a  union  between  these  two  great  leaders  of 
the  Puritans. 

In  a  letter  to  Governor  Bradford,  written  June  28, 
1630,  Fuller  says,  "  I  have  been  to  Matapan  [Dorches- 
ter], and  let  some  twenty  of  those  people  blood."  Old 
Thacher  quotes  this  and  adds,  "  What  disease  prevailed 
among  those  people  that  required  the  loss  of  blood  in 
the  warm  season  of  June,  we  are  unable  to  determine." 

Thacher  says  of  Fuller,  "  In  his  medical  character, 
and  for  his  Christian  virtues  and  unfeigned  piety.  Dr. 
Fuller  was  held  in  the  highest  estimation  and  was  re- 
sorted to  as  a   father  and   wise  counsellor   during  the 

'"  John  Brown,  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  New  England. 
2 


i8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

perils  of  the  day.  He  was  one  of  several  heads  of  fami- 
lies who  died  of  a  fever  which  prevailed  in  Plymouth  in 
the  summer  of  1633,  and  was  most  deeply  lamented  by  all 
the  colonists." 

His  wife  was  held  in  great  esteem  as  a  midwife. 

In  Mowrt's  "  Relation"  there  are  several  instances  of 
Fuller's  professional  services  to  their  Indian  neighbors 
as  well  as  to  the  colonists  themselves.  When  the  English 
sent  out  an  expedition  against  the  Indian  chief  Cor- 
bitant  to  avenge  the  supposed  death  of  Tisquantum,  their 
interpreter,  they  brought  back  two  Indians  whom  they 
had  wounded  to  the  settlement,  where  Fuller  dressed  their 
injuries.  He  also  attended  the  sick  of  Thomas  Weston's 
colony  at  Wessagusset  (Weymouth),  although  the  set- 
tlers at  that  place  had  behaved  in  a  most  unneighborly 
manner  towards  those  at  Plymouth. 

In  February,  1862,  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  com- 
municated to  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  a 
paper  on  a  manuscript  found  in  the  collection  of  Win- 
throp  Papers  which  contained  a  list  of  recipes  by  one 
Dr.  Ed.  Stafford,  of  London,  given  to  Governor  Win- 
throp  for  the  benefit  of  his  colony  in  America. 

Dr.  Holmes  thought  that  they  had  been  written  by 
Dr.  Stafford  in  response  to  a  request  by  Governor  Win- 
throp  for  instructions  as  to  what  to  do  for  the  commoner 
ills  of  the  flesh  that  the  colonists  might  fall  heir  to.  The 
paper  was  sent  over  in  1643,  when  Winthrop  had  been 
in  America  about  thirteen  years.  Nothing  whatever  is 
known  concerning  Dr.  Ed.  Stafford  except  what  may  be 
gathered  from  this  manuscript.  Dr.  Holmes  described 
the  document  as  follows : 

"  The  manuscript  consists  of  3  sheets  of  coarse  paper,  about  6  by 
7  inches  in  size.  A  little  more  than  8  pages  and  a  half  are  written 
over,  and  it  is  inscribed  on  the  back, 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  19 

'  For  my  worthy  friend  Mr.  Winthrop.' 

A  different  and  probably  a  later  hand  has  also  written  on  the  back, 

'  Receipts  to  cure  various  Disorders.' 

The  seventh  page  is  not  in  the  same  handwriting  as  the  rest.  The 
margins  are  ruled  as  if  with  lead  pencil.  The  handwriting  with 
the  exception  of  the  seventh  page  is  very  neat,  small,  but  perfectly 
legible." 

Gerard's  Herbal  is  the  only  work  quoted  by  Dr.  Staf- 
ford ;   he  spells  the  name  Gcrrit. 

The  Manuscript. 

"  FOR    MY    WORTHY    FRIEND    MR.    WINTHROP. 

"  I.  For  Madnesse : — Take  ye  herbe  Hypericon  ( ;  in  English  St. 
John's  Wort)  and  boile  it  in  water  or  drink,  untill  it  be  strong  of 
it,  and  redd  in  colour ;  or  else,  putt  a  bundle  of  it  in  new  drinke 
to  Worke,  and  give  it  ye  patient  to  drinke,  permitting  him  to 
drinke  nothing  else.  First  purge  him  well  with  2  or  3  seeds  (  ;  or 
more,  according  to  ye  strength  of  the  partie;)  of  spurge. 

"  Let  them  not  eat  much,  but  keepe  dyet,  and  you  shall  see 
Wondrous  effects  in  fewe  days.  I  have  knowne  it  to  cure  per- 
fectly to  admiration  in  five  days. 

"  2.  For  ye  Falling  sicknesse  Purge  first  with  ye  extract  of 
Hellebore  (;  black  hellebore  I  meane;)  and  instead  of  St.  John's 
Wort,  use  pentaphyllon,  (or  meadow  Cinquefoile ;)  Use  it  as  above 
is  said  of  St.  John's  Wort,  and  God  Willing  he  shall  be  perfectly 
cured  in  short  or  longer  tyme,  according  as  the  disease  hath  taken 
root. 

"  3.  For  ye  Mother — Give  ye  patient  as  much  as  will  goe  upon 
6  pens,  or  a  shilling,  each  morning,  of  ye  powder  of  ye  greate 
Bryonie  roote. 

"  4.  For  Implicat  or  mixt  diseases,  as  Lethargic  or  Vertigo,  &c 
Mixe  either  two  or  more  of  these  above  said  in  ye  patien's  drink. 

"5.  For  disease  of  ye  Bladder, — Give  ye  partie  to  drink  (if  it 
be  an  inflammation  heat  of  Urine;)  emulcions  made  with  barlie, 
huskt  almonds,  and  ye  4  great  cold  seeds,  if  his  drinke  hath  been 
strong  before;  but  if  small  drinke  and  water,  give  him  old  Maligo 
and  Canarie,  such  to  drinke  Warme  either  by  itselfe  or  mixt  with 
Water;  And  applie  to  the  region  of  his  bladder,  a  poltis  made 
with  barlie  meale,  and  ye  rootes  or  leaves  of  Aaron ;  make  In- 
jections of  ye  decoction  of  Hypericon,  ye  barke  of  a  young  Oake 


20  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

(;  the  Outward  black  skim  being  taken  off;)  and  linnseede;  and 
by  God's  grace  he  shall  finde  present  ease  and  cure  with  continu- 
ance. 

"  6.  For  ye  stopping  of  ye  Urine,  or  ye  Stone — Give  ye  partie  to 
drinke  of  ye  decoction  of  maiden  hayre,  fennell  rootes,  and  parsley 
rootes.  Let  him  drinke  great  quantities.  But  before  lett  him  drinke 
2  or  3  ounces  of  ye  Oyle  of  Allmonds  newly  extracted,  or  more; 
Or  let  him  swallow  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  new  butter  made  into 
round  bullets,  and  cast  into  faire  water  to  harden  them. 

"  7.  For  ye  Bloodie  Flix :  Purge  first  with  Rhubarbe  torrified ; 
and  give  the  partie  to  drinke  twice  a  day  a  pint  of  this  caudle 
following:  Take  a  dragme  of  ye  best  Bole-Armoniak,  a  dragme  of 
Sanguis  draconis ;  and  dragme  of  ye  best  terra  Segillata  of  a 
yellow  colour  seal'd  with  a  Castle;  Make  these  into  a  fine  powder, 
and  with  a  quart  of  red  stiptick  Wine,  the  yolks  of  halfe  a  dozen 
eggs,  &  a  quantitie  of  sugar,  make  a  Caudle,  boyling  the  powder 
in  a  pipkin  with  the  Wine ;  then  adding  ye  yolks  of  ye  eggs  beaten, 
and  lastly  ye  Sugar. 

"If  his  gutts  have  been  fretted,  give  him  ye  Injection  for  ye 
bladder  before  mentioned,  in  a  glister;  and  if  you  please  you  may 
adde  to  it  the  powders. 

"  8.  For  the  yellow  Jaundise  or  Jaunders — Boyle  a  quart  of 
sweet  milke,  dissolve  therein  as  much  bay-salt,  or  fine  Sal-peter, 
as  shall  make  it  brackish  in  taste ;  and  putting  Saffron  in  a  fine 
linen  clout,  rubb  it  into  ye  Milke,  untill  ye  Milke  be  very  yellow; 
and  give  it  ye  patient  to  drinke. 

"  9.  For  paines  in  ye  Brest  or  Limmes :  Weare  a  Wilde  Catts 
skin  on  ye  place  grieved. 

"10.  For  a  broken  bone,  or  a  joynt  dislocated,  to  knit  them: 
Take  ye  barke  of  Elme,  or  Witch-hazzle ;  cutt  away  the  Outward 
part,  and  cutt  ye  Inward  redd  barke  small,  and  boyle  it  in  Water, 
till  it  be  thick  that  it  will  rope;  pound  well,  and  lay  of  it  hott, 
barke  and  all  upon  ye  Bone  or  Joynt,  and  tye  it  on ;  or  with  ye 
Mussilage  of  it,  and  bole  Armoniack  make  a  playster  and  lay  it  on. 

"  II.  My  Black  powder  against  ye  plague,  small  pox;  purple,  all 
sorts  of  feavers ;  Poyson  either  by  Way  of  prevention,  or  after. 
Infection.  In  the  Moneth  of  March  take  Toades,  as  many  as  you 
will,  alive ;  putt  them  into  a  Earthen  pott,  so  it  will  be  halfe  full ; 
Cover  it  with  a  broad  tyle  or  Iron  plate;  then  overwhelme  the 
pott,  so  yt  ye  bottome  may  be  uppermost;  putt  charcoales  round 
about  it,  and  in  the  open  ayre,  not  in  an  house,  sett  it  in  fire  and 
lett  it  burne  out  and  extinguish  of  itself;  When  it  is  cold,  take  out 
the  toades ;  and  in  an  Iron-Morter  pound  them  very  well  and  scarce 
them — then  in  a  Crucible  calcine  them  so  againe ;    pound  and  scarce 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  21 

them  againe.  The  first  time  they  will  be  browne  powder,  the  next 
time  black.  Of  this  you  may  give  a  dragme  in  a  Vehiculum  (or 
drinke)  Inwardly  in  any  infection  taken ;  and  let  them  sweat  upon 
it  in  their  beddes ;  but  lett  them  not  cover  their  heads ;  especially 
in  the  Small  pox.  For  prevention,  half  a  dragme  will  suffice; 
moderate  the  dose  according  to  ye  strength  of  the  partie;  for  i 
have  sett  downe  ye  greatest  that  is  needfull.  There  is  no  danger 
in  it.  Let  them  neither  eate  nor  drinke  during  their  sweat,  except 
now  and  then  a  spoonefull  of  Warme  posset-drinke  to  wash  their 
mouthes.  Keep  warm  and  close,  (for  a  child  of  5  years,  10  graynes 
is  enough  in  infection,  for  prevention  4  or  5  graynes)  till  they  be 
perfectly  well ;  and  eate  but  little  and  that  according  to  rules  of 
physicke. 

"  The  same  powder  is  used  playster  wise  with  Vinegar  for  gan- 
grene, or  bite  of  anie  Venomous  beast,  taking  it  likewise,  In- 
wardly; it  is  used  likewise  for  all  Cankers,  Fistulas  &  old  Ulcers 
&  Kings  Evill,  strewing  it  upon  the  sore,  and  keeping  them  cleane. 

"  12.  An  other  for  old  Soares.  Take  St.  John's  Wort,  pound  it 
small,  and  mingle  it  with  as  much  quicklime ;  powre  on  it  raine 
Water,  that  may  cover,  six  fingers  deepe  in  a  broad  earthen  Vessell, 
putt  in  to  ye  sunne,  and  stirre  it  well  once  every  day  for  a  Moneth ; 
then  filter  and  reserve  the  water  for  your  use.  Wash  ye  soares 
with  it;    it  cureth  Wonderfully. 

"  13.  For  Burning  with  Gunn  powder  or  otherwise — Take  ye 
Inner  green  Rine  of  Elder,  in  latine  Sambucus,  Sempervive,  and 
Mosse  that  groweth  on  an  old  thacht  howse  top,  of  each  alike ; 
boyle  ihem  in  stale  (lotium),  and  sallet  oyle,  so  much  as  may  cover 
them  4  fingers;  Let  all  the  (lotium)  boyle  cleane  away,  &  and 
straine  very  well;  putt  new  herbes  and  (lotium)  as  before,  boyle 
that  likewise  away,  and  straine  it  as  before.  Then  to  that  oyle 
adde  barrowes  grease  until  it  come  to  be  an  Oyntment.  with  which 
anoynt  a  paper,  and  lay  it  to  ye  burning  anoynting  the  place  also 
with  a  feather. 

"  14.  For  Soare  Brests — Take  jolkes  of  eggs  and  honie  alike, 
beat  them  till  they  be  very  thinn;  then  with  wheat  flower  beat 
them,  till  it  be  as  thick  as  honey ;  spread  it  upon  flax,  and  lay  it 
upon  the  Brest,  defending  the  nibble  with  a  plate  of  lead  as  bigg 
as  an  halfe  crowne,  and  an  hole  in  it  so  bigg  that  nibble  may  come 
out — renewe  it  every  twelve  houres ;  and  this  will  breake  and  coole 
the  Brest.  When  it  breakes,  tent  it  with  a  salve  of  rosen,  wax  & 
terpentine  alike  quantitie. 

"  15.  For  Breaking  of  any  Biles  or  great  Swellings:  If  that  poltis 
next  above  for  the  sore  Brest  doe  not  breake  it,  pound  fox-glove, 
and  lay  it  to  it,  and  that  will ;    then  tent  it  as  for  the  sore  Brest. 


22  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  i6.  For  a  greene  Wound — Take  salve  of  Clownes  Wort,  or 
Clownes  all-heal  prescribed  in  Gerrits  Herball ;  or  the  Oyle  of 
Hypericon  and  Ballsam. 

"  17.  For  the  King's  evill — Take  2  Toades  &  let  them  fast  2  or 
3  dayes  that  they  may  spewe  out  their  Earth,  then  boyle  them  in 
a  pint  of  Oyle  in  a  newe  pipkin  covered  so  long,  till  they  be 
brought  to  a  black  Coale  broken  in  peeces — presse  out  the  Oyle 
from  the  said  Toades,  reserve  a  4th  part,  to  the  other  three  parts 
adde  lialfe  a  pound  of  yellow  wax,  shaved  small — let  the  wax  melt 
in  the  Oyle  in  wch.  dippe  the  linnen  cloathes,  that  they  may  be 
well  covered  cere-cloathes — with  the  4th  part  of  the  Oyle  left  an- 
noynt  all  the  places  infected,  &  then  strewe  of  my  black  powder  of 
Toades  (mentioned  before  for  an  Antidote  agaynst  the  Plague) 
upon  the  sores  or  swellings,  &  then  put  on  of  ye  Cerecloath. 

"  dresse  the  running  sores  once  everie  24  howres,  but  it  will 
serve  to  dresse  the  swellings  once  in  4  dayes.  Everie  4th  day 
at  furthest  give  of  ye  said  black  powder  to  the  partie  &  let  them 
swet  upon  it.  you  may  proportion  the  dose  from  5  graynes  to  a 
dragme  according  to  the  strength  &  constitutioft  of  ye  partie — if 
the  partie  be  strong,  it  is  the  better  that  they  swet  everie  day  or 
everie  second  day. 

"  By  this  course  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  Cure  by  God's  assist- 
ance. 

"cautions  in  physick. 

"  I.  That  you  doe  not  let  Blood,  but  in  a  pleurisie  or  Contu- 
sion, and  that  necessitated. 

"  2.  yt  in  the  beginning  of  all  Feavers,  you  fast  2  or  3  days  from 
meate  and  drinke,  except  ye  last  day,  and  that  so  little,  as  only  to 
sustain  Nature ;    and  afterward  you  come  to  your  dyet  by  degrees. 

"  3-  yt  you  purge  to  follow  Nature  and  not  to  contrarie  her ;  as 
if  the  partie  Vomit,  you  purge  by  vomit ;  if  the  partie  be  loose  you 
purge  downwards ;    if  the  partie  bleed  at  ye  nose,  ye  draw  blood. 

"  4.  yt  in  all  purges  you  administer  in  long  diseases,  or  to  weake 
persons,  you  mixe  Cordials  as  Confectis  Alchermes,  etc.  And  yt 
you  purge  with  simples  and  not  compounds,  except  the  disease  be 
mixt. 

"the  best  purges. 

Rhubarbe,  or  rather  ye  tincture  of  it  for  Choller.  Jallop  for 
humors.  Agarick  for  flegrne.  Extraxt  of  Scammonie,  or  black 
Hellebor,   for  Melancholic. 

Puie  de  Inde  halfe  a  Kernell  for  mixt  humors. 

Crocus  Metallarum  well-prepared  for  mixt  humors. 

Spurge  seede  for  ye  head. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  23 

"  THE   BEST    SUDORIFICKS. 

Being  simples ;    Snake  roote ;    Contra  yerva. 

The  Best  gumms  for  drawing, — Tackamahacka  Carama,  Kercman ; 

Burgundie  pitch ;    These  may  be   used   simple   or   mixt   for   old 

aches  and  paines. 

"  Nota  bene  No  man  can  with  a  good  Conscience  take  a  fee  or 
a  reward  before  ye  partie  receive  benefit  apparent;  and  then  he  is 
not  to  demand  anything,  but  what  God  shall  putt  into  the  head  of 
the  partie  to  give  him.  And  he  is  not  to  refuse  anything,  that 
shall  be  so  given  him,  for  it  comes  from  God. 

"  A  man  is  not  to  neglect  that  partie,  to  whom  he  hath  once 
administered,  but  to  visit  him  at  least  once  a  day,  and  to  medle 
with  no  more  than  he  can  well  attend.  In  so  doeing  he  shall 
discharge  a  good  Conscience  before  God  &  Man, 

"  These  receipts  are  all  experimented. 

(Signed)         "Ed.  Stafford. 

"  London.     May  6th  1643" 

I  think  this  manuscript  possesses  a  pecuHar  interest  in 
that  it  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  standard,  i£  not  the 
only  medical  text-book  in  the  colony.  It  shows  also  that 
Governor  Winthrop  was  desirous  of  providing  to  the  best 
of  his  ability  for  the  physical  welfare  of  those  in  his 
charge.  It  was  not  so  uncommon  then,  as  it  is  now  in 
these  days  of  cheap  medical  advice  and  free  dispensary 
services,  for  laymen  to  assume  the  functions  of  physi- 
cians, and  a  man  having  a  store  of  prescriptions  such  as 
those  of  Dr.  Stafford  in  his  possession  would  be  regarded 
as  quite  an  oracle  in  medical  science. 

In  the  inventory  of  Governor  Winthrop's  estate  which 
was  filed  after  his  death  we  find  the  following  item: 

"  3  sirenges 2  tree  pans" 

From  which  we  may  possibly  infer  that  the  governor 
thought  it  well  to  provide  a  few  instruments  to  meet 
surgical  emergencies,  although  they  may  have  simply  got 
among  his  things  in  the  course  of  years  spent  in  the  same 
house. 


24  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Governor  Winthrop's  son,  John  Winthrop,  Jr.,  was 
famous  throughout  the  New  England  colonies  for  his 
medical  skill.  He  was  governor  of  Connecticut  and  a 
man  of  such  scientific  attainments  as  to  be  a  founder  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Great  Britain.^  ^ 

In  the  "  Massachusetts  Historical  Society's  Collec- 
tions," fourth  series,  vol.  vii.,  are  preserved  a  number  of 
letters  written  to  him  by  various  colonists  on  medical 
matters,  some  seeking  advice,  others  returning  thanks 
for  advice  which  he  had  previously  given.  Some  of  them 
are  very  interesting  and  show  the  most  implicit  faith  in 
his  skill. 

Theophilus  Eaton  writes, — 

"  My  wife  with  thankfulness  acknowledges  the  good  she  hath 
found  by  following  your  directions,  but  doth  much  desire  your 
presence  here,  as  soone  as  the  season,  &  your  occasions  will  per- 
mitt,  both  in  refference  to  my  daughter  Hopkins,  and  my  daughter 
Hannah,  who  hath  bin  exercised  these  4  or  5  days  with  vapours 
rising  (as  we  conceive)  out  of  her  stomach  into  her  head,  hindering 
both  her  sleepe  &  appetite  to  meate,  and  apt  to  putt  her  into  faint- 
ing fitts,  whether  from  winde,  or  the  mother,  or  from  what  other 
cause  I  cannot  informe." 

Daughter  Hopkins,  it  is  pleasing  to  learn  from  a  sub- 
sequent letter,  obeyed  directions : 

"  Besides  other  things  you  left  for  her,  the  9th  of  this  month, 
she  tooke  the  first  potion  of  purging  physick,  which  I  heare  wrought 

"  It  is  a  curious  fact,  mentioned  by  Beck  in  his  "  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  State  of  American  Medicine  before  the  Revolution," 
that  four  American  physicians, — namely.  Dr.  Zabdiel  Boylston,  of 
Massachusetts;  Dr.  John  Morgan,  of  Pennsylvania;  Dr.  John 
Mitchell,  of  Virginia;  and  Dr.  Alexander  Garden,  of  South  Caro- 
lina, had  been  honored  by  election  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Great 
Britain,  and  that  ten  other  Americans  were  also  members, — namely, 
four  of  the  Winthrop  family,  Paul  Dudley,  Leverett,  Thomas 
Brattle,  Cotton  Mather,  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  David  Ritten- 
house,  in  ante-Revolutionary  times. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  25 

well."  "  My  daughter  Hopkins  hath  kept  her  bed  since  she  took 
physick,  and  my  wife  is  in  some  doubt  whether  she  should  give 
her  any  more  of  it  till  she  have  your  advice." 

The  following  letter  from  John  Endicott  to  Winthrop 
gives  us  an  insight  into  some  of  the  substances  which  he 
used  in  his  practice : 

"  Worthie  Sir — I  ame  sorrie  to  heare  of  your  affliction  in  this 
visitation  of  God ;  though  you  know  that  when  he  loveth  he  chas- 
tiseth.     Let  that  comfort  you,  etc. 

"  I  have  sent  you  of  all  I  have,  or  what  I  can  gett ;  viz  Syrup 
of  Violetts,  Sirrup  of  Roses,  Spirits  of  Mint,  Spirits  of  Annis,  as 
you  may  see  written  upon  the  severall  vials,  I  have  sent  you  Mrs. 
Beggarly  her  vnicorns  home,  &  Beza  stone  I  had  of  Mr.  Humfry, 
who  is  sorry  also  for  your  exercise.  I  have  sent  you  a  Be  [z]  oar 
stone,  &  mugwart  &  organic,  if  you  should  have  need  of  it.  They 
are  both  good  in  this  case  of  your  wife,  &  also  I  have  sent  you 
some  Galingall  root.  Mrs.  Beggarly  knows  the  vse  of  it.  If  the 
fitt  of  the  mother  come  verie  violently,  as  you  write,  there  is  noth- 
ing better  to  suppresse  the  rising  of  it  than  sneezing ;  a  little  pouder 
of  tobacco  taken  in  her  nose,  I  think  is  better  than  Helibore.  If 
I  knew  how  or  which  way  in  this  case  to  do  her  good,  I  would, 
with  all  my  heart,  and  would  now  have  come  to  you,  but  I  ame 
altogether  vnskilfuU  in  theise  cases  of  women." 

There  are  two  amusing  letters  in  the  collection  from 
William  Leete  to  Winthrop.  The  first  details  the  eye- 
trouble  which  afflicted  his  youngest  child.  The  second 
mentions,  what  was  then  a  very  common  practice,  the 
administration  of  powders  in  beer. 

(i)  "Our  youngest  childe,  about  9  weeks  old,  ever  since  it  was 
3  or  4  dayes  old,  hath  appeared  full  of  red  spots  or  pimples,  some- 
what like  to  measles,  &  seemed  allwayes  to  be  bigg,  and  to  hang 
ouer  on  the  eybrowes  &  lids;  but  now  of  late  the  eye  lidds  have 
swlied  &  looked  very  red,  burneing  exceedingly,  &  now  at  last 
they  are  swelled  up  that  the  sight  is  vtterly  closed  in,  that  he  could 
not  see,  nor  for  suerall  dayes,  nor  yet  doth,  &  the  verges  of  the 
lids,  where  they  close,  have  a  white  seame,  like  tl.e  white  heads  of 
wheales  wherein  is  matter;  it  is  somewhat  extraordinary  such  as 
none  of  our  women  can  tell  that  they  have  ever  scene  the  like." 


26  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

(2)  "  Guilford  June  2.2,  1658. 

"  Sir,  you  were  pleased  to  furnish  my  wife  with  more  cordiall 
powders  by  John  Crane  for  Graciana  [his  daughter]  but  no  direc- 
tions within  or  amongst  the  papers  can  we  find;  but  truly  one  of 
the  most  needful  directions  is  how  to  make  her  willing  &  apt  to 
take  it,  for  though  it  seemes  very  pleasant  of  itself  yet  is  she  grown 
so  marvellous  aukward  &  averse  from  takeing  it  in  beer.  Where- 
fore I  would  entreat  you  to  prescribe  to  vs  the  varyety  of  wayes 
in  which  it  may  be  giuen  so  effectually ;  wee  doubt  els  it  may  doe 
much  lesse  good,  being  giuen  by  force  only." 

There  is  also  a  letter  from  Edward  Cooke,  of  London, 
to  Winthrop,  dated  July  20,  1640,  introducing  Mr.  Birde, 
who  was  desirous  of  settling  as  a  physician  to  the  colo- 
nists : 

"  The  occasion  of  this  letter,  is  in  behalfe  of  a  learned  Gentlmen 
of  my  acquaintance,  Mr.  Birde,  who  I  vnderstand  hath  written  to 
your  selfe  to  bee  entertayned  of  the  people  in  your  parts  as  a 
phisition,  &  well  knowinge  his  sufficiencies  in  the  practize  of  phy- 
sick,  my  request  to  you  is,  that  you  would  bee  pleased  to  further 
him  in  his  desires,  which  if  you  shall  please  to  doe,  I  am  assured 
you  will  not  repent  thereof;  &  I  shall  take  this  your  kindeness  as 
an  espetiall  favour  to  myself." 

Indorsed  by  Winthrop,  "  Mr.  Cooke  for  Mr.  Birde." 

John  Josselyn,^^  an  Englishman  who  came  twice  to 
this  country  and  spent  considerable  time  in  the  early  set- 
tlements of  Massachusetts,  has  left  us  some  most  interest- 
ing and  picturesque  accounts  of  affairs  of  interest  in  the 
early  medical  annals  of  America.  He  was  a  very  keen 
observer  and  studied  the  natural  products  of  the  new 
country  with  a  naturalist's  ardor.  Some  of  his  observa- 
tions on  the  medical  properties  of  plants  are  very  quaint. 
He  says  that  no  opium  is  found  in  America,  but  that 
white  hellebore  is  used  as  a  substitute. 

'"  An  Account  of  Two  Voyages  to  New  England,  by  John  Jos- 
selyn,  Gent.,  London,  1674.  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Col- 
lections, third  series,  vol.  iii. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  27 

"  The  English  in  New  England  take  white  Hellebore,  which  oper- 
ates as  fairly  with  them  as  with  the  Indians,  who  steeping  of  it  in 
water  sometime,  give  it  to  young  lads  gathered  together  a  purpose 
to  drink,  if  it  come  up  they  force  them  to  drink  again  their  vomit, 
(which  they  save  in  a  Birchen-dish)  till  it  stayes  with  them,  &  he 
that  gets  the  victory  of  it  is  made  Captain  of  the  other  lads  for 
that  year." 

He  found  another  plant,  "  called  for  want  of  a  name 
Clownes  wound  wort,  by  the  English,  though  it  be  not 
the  same,  that  will  heal  a  green  wound  in  24  hours,  if  a 
wise  man  have  the  ordering  of  it,"  and  he  says,  "  The 
Indians  tell  of  a  Tree  that  grows  far  up  in  the  land,  that 
is  big  as  an  Oake,  that  will  cure  the  falling-sickness  infal- 
libly, what  part  thereof  they  use,  Bark,  Wood,  leaves  or 
fruit,  I  could  never  learn ;  they  promised  often  to  bring 
of  it  to  me,  but  did  not.''  There  is  a  little  touch  of 
pathos,  I  think,  in  the  last  account,  indicating  his  disap- 
pointment at  his  failure  to  find  such  a  wonderful  tree. 

Every  smoker  will  appreciate  his  commendation  of 
tobacco : 

"  The  vertues  of  Tobacco  are  these,  it  helps  digestion,  the  Gout, 
the  Tooth-Ach,  prevents  infection  by  scents,  it  heats  the  cold  and 
cools  them  that  sweat,  feedeth  the  hungry,  spent  spirits  restoreth, 
purgeth  the  stomach,  killeth  nits  and  lice;  the  juice  of  the  green 
leaf  healeth  green  wounds,  although  poysoned ;  the  Syrup  for 
many  diseases,  the  smoak  for  the  Phythisick,  cough  of  the  lungs, 
distillation  of  Rheume,  and  all  diseases  of  a  cold  and  moist  cause, 
good  for  all  bodies  cold  and  moist  taken  upon  an  emptie  stomach, 
taken  upon  a  full  stomach  it  precipitates  digestion,  immoderately 
taken  it  dryeth  the  body;  enflameth  the  blood,  hurteth  the  brain, 
weakens  the  eyes  and  sinews." 

Of  the  diseases  to  which  the  Indians  were  subject  he 
says, — 

"  The  great  pox  is  proper  to  them,  by  reason  (as  some  do  deem) 
that  they  are  Man-eaters.  ...  In  New  England  the  Indians  are 
afflicted  with  pestilent  Feavers,  Plague,  Black-pox,  Consumption 
of   the   Lungs,    Falling-sickness,   Kings-evil,   and   a   Disease   in   the 


28  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

back,  with  us  Empyema.  Their  physicians  are  the  Powaws  or 
Indian  Priests  who  cure  sometimes  by  charms  or  medicines,  but 
in  a  general  infection  they  seldom  come  amongst  them,  therefore 
they  use  their  own  remedies,  which  is  sweating,  &c.  Their  manner 
is  when  they  have  plague  or  small  pox  amongst  them  to  cover 
their  Wigwams  with  Bark  so  close  that  no  Air  can  enter  in,  lining 
them  (as  I  said  before)  within,  and  making  a  great  fire  till  they 
are  in  a  top  sweat,  and  then  run  out  in  the  Sea  or  River,  and 
presently  after  they  come  into  their  Hutts  again  they  either  recover 
or  give  up  the  Ghost." 

Of  the  diseases  from  which  the  EngHsh  suffered,  he 
says, — 

"  The  Diseases  that  the  English  are  afflicted  with  are  the  same 
that  they  have  in  England,  with  some  proper  to  New-England, 
griping  of  the  belly  (accompanied  with  Feaver  and  Ague)  which 
turns  to  the  bloody-flux,  a  common  disease  in  the  Country,  which 
together  with  the  small  pox  hath  carried  away  abundance  of  their 
children,  for  this  the  common  medicines  amongst  the  poorer  sort 
are  Pills  of  Cotton  swallowed,  or  Sugar  and  Sallet-oyl  boiled 
thick  and  made  into  Pills,  Allocs  pulverized  and  taken  in  the  pap 
of  an  Apple.  I  helped  many  of  them  with  a  sweating  medicine 
only.  .  .  .  Also  they  are  troubled  with  a  disease  in  the  mouth  or 
throat  which  hath  proved  mortal  to  some  in  a  very  short  time, 
Quinsies,  and  Imposthumations  of  the  Almonds,  with  great  dis- 
tempers of  cold.  Some  of  our  New  England  writers  affirm  that 
the  English  are  never  or  very  rarely  heard  to  sneeze  or  cough, 
as  ordinarily  they  do  in  England,  which  is  not  true.  For  a  cough 
or  stitch  upon  cold.  Wormwood,  Sage,  Marygolds,  and  Crabs- 
Claws  boiled  in  posset-drink  and  drunk  off  very  warm,  is  a  sov- 
eraign  medicine.  Pleurisies  and  Empyemas  are  frequently  there, 
both  cured  after  one  and  the  same  way ;  but  the  last  is  a  desperate 
disease  and  kills  many.  For  the  Pleurisie  I  have  given  Coriander- 
seed  prepared,  Carduns  seed,  and  Hartshorn  pulverized  with  good 
success,  the  dose  one  dram  in  a  cup  of  wine.  .  .  .  The  Stone  terribly 
afflicts  many,  and  the  Gout,  and  Sciatica,  for  which  take  Onions 
roasted,  pealed  and  stampt,  then  boil  them  with  Neats-feet  oyl  and 
Rhum  to  a  plaister  and  apply  it  to  the  hip.  Headaches  are  fre- 
quent, Palsies,  Dropsies,  Worms,  Noli-me-tongere,  Cancers,  pesti- 
lent Feavers,  Scurvies,  the  body  corrupted  with  Sea-diet,  Beef  and 
Pork  tainted,  Butter  and  Cheese  corrupted,  fish  rotten,  a  long  voy- 
age, coming  into  the  searching  sharpness  of  a  purer  climate,  causeth 
death  and  sickness  amongst  them.  .  .  .  Men  and  Women  keep  their 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  29 

complexions,  but  lose  their  Teeth ;  The  Women  are  pittifully 
Tooth-shaken;  whether  through  the  coldness  of  the  climate,  or 
by  sweetmeats  of  which  they  have  store,  I  am  not  able  to  affirm." 

The  temptation  to  quote  Josselyn  at  length  is  very 
strong,  but  I  shall  cease,  only  adding  that  his  book  is  well 
worthy  of  perusal  by  all  Americans  interested  in  the 
early  affairs  of  their  country. 

Another  keen  observer  who  has  left  us  some  inter- 
esting particulars  regarding  medical  affairs  among  the 
Indians  was  John  Lawson,  who  travelled  in  the  Carolinas 
in  1700.  He  was  surveyor-general  of  North  Carolina 
and  recorded  what  he  saw  in  a  "  History  of  North  Caro- 
lina," which  he  published  in  London  in  1709.  Like  Jos- 
selyn he  is  very  quotable.  Thus  he  describes  the  manner 
in  which  the  Seneca  Indians  were  wont  to  mutilate  their 
prisoners  in  order  to  prevent  their  escape  as   follows : 

"  The  Indian  that  put  us  in  our  path,  had  been  a  prisoner  among 
the  Sinnegars  [Senecas]  but  had  outrun  them,  although  they  had 
cut  his  toes  and  half  his  feet  away,  which  is  a  practice  common 
amongst  them.  They  first  raise  the  skin,  then  cut  away  half  the 
feet,  and  so  wrap  the  skin  over  the  stump  and  make  a  present  cure 
of  the  wounds.  This  commonly  disables  them  from  making  their 
escape,  they  being  not  so  good  travellers  as  before,  and  the  im- 
pression of  their  half  feet  making  it  easy  to  trace  them." 

When  Lawson  was  among  the  Tuscaroras  he  witnessed 
the  ministrations  of  an  Indian  medicine-man  to  a  young 
Vv'oman  who  suffered  from  fits.  The  medicine-man  placed 
her  "  on  her  belly  and  made  a  small  incision  with  rattle- 
snake teeth ;  then  laying  his  mouth  to  the  place  he  sucked 
out  near  a  quart  of  black  conglutinated  blood  and  serum." 

Another  time  one  of  his  companions  became  lame  in 
one  knee.  The  chief  at  whose  place  they  were  staying, 
after  looking  at  the  injured  member,  "  pulled  out  an  in- 
strument something  like  a  comb,  which  was  made  of 
split  reed,  with  fifteen  teeth  of  rattlesnakes,  set  at  much 


30  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

the  same  distance  as  in  a  large  horn  comb.  With  these 
he  scratched  the  place  where  the  lameness  chiefly  lay  till 
the  blood  came,  bathing  it  both  before  and  after  incision 
with  warm  w^ater  spurted  out  of  his  mouth;  this  done, 
he  ran  into  his  plantation  and  got  some  sassafras  root, 
which  grows  there  in  great  plenty,  dried  it  in  the  embers, 
scraped  off  the  outward  rind,  and  having  beat  it  between 
two  stones,  applied  it  to  the  part  afflicted,  binding  it  up 
well.    Thus  in  a  day  or  two  the  patient  became  sound." 

Lawson  describes  the  methods  in  vogue  among  the 
Indian  medicine-men  in  a  most  entertaining  manner : 

"  As  soon  as  the  doctor  comes  into  the  cabin,  the  sick  person  is 
set  on  a  mat  or  skin  stark  naked,  except  some  trifle  that  covers 
their  nakedness  when  ripe,  otherwise,  in  very  young  children,  there 
is  nothing  about  them.  In  this  manner  the  patient  lies  when  the 
conjurer  appears,  and  the  King  of  that  nation  comes  to  attend 
him  with  a  rattle  made  of  a  gourd  with  peas  in  it.  This  the  King 
delivers  into  the  doctor's  hand,  whilst  another  brings  a  bowl  of 
water  and  sets  it  down.  Then  the  doctor  begins  and  utters  some 
few  words  very  softly;  afterwards  he  smells  of  the  patient's  navel 
and  belly;  and  sometimes  scarifies  him  a  little  with  a  flint,  or  an 
instrument  made  of  rattlesnake  teeth  for  this  purpose ;  then  he 
sucks  the  patient  and  gets  out  a  mouthful  of  blood  and  serum, 
but  serum  chiefly,  which  perhaps  may  be  a  better  method  in  many 
cases  than  to  take  away  great  quantities  of  blood,  as  is  commonly 
practised,  which  he  spits  in  the  bowl  of  water.  Then  he  begins  to 
mutter  and  talk  apace,  and  at  last  to  cut  capers  and  clap  his  hands 
on  his  breech  and  sides,  till  he  gets  into  a  sweat,  so  that  a  stranger 
would  think  that  he  was  running  mad,  now  and  then  sucking  the 
patient,  and  so  at  times  keeps  sucking  till  he  has  got  a  great  quan- 
tity of  very  ill-colored  matter  out  of  the  belly,  arms,  breast,  fore- 
head, temples,  neck  and  moist  parts,  still  continuing  his  grimaces 
and  antic  postures,  which  are  not  to  be  matched  in  Bedlam.  At 
last  you  will  see  the  doctor  all  over  of  a  dropping  sweat,  and  scarce 
able  to  utter  one  word,  having  quite  spent  himself ;  then  he  will 
cease  for  awhile,  and  so  begin  again  till  he  comes  in  the  same  pitch 
of  raving  and  seeming  madness  as  before ;  all  this  time  the  sick 
body  never  so  much  as  moves,  although  doubtless  the  lancing  and 
sucking  must  be  a  great  punishment  to  them,  but  they  certainly 
are  the  patientest  and  most  steady  people  under  any  burden  that 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  31 

I  ever  saw  in  my  life.  At  last  the  conjurer  makes  an  end,  and  tells 
the  patient's  friends  whether  the  patient  will  live  or  die ;  and  then 
one  that  waits  at  this  ceremony  takes  the  blood  away,  which  remains 
in  a  lump  in  the  middle  of  the  water,  and  buries  it  in  the  ground 
in  a  place  unknown  to  any  one  but  he  that  inters  it." 

Lawson  thought  their  prognosis  was  generally  correct 
as  to  the  outcome  of  the  case. 

Of  the  therapeutic  agencies  in  use  among  the  Indians 
Lawson  says, — 

"  They  cure  scald  heads  infallibly,  and  never  miss.  Their  chief 
remedy,  as  I  have  seen  them  make  use  of,  is  the  oil  of  acorns,  but 
from  which  sort  of  oak  I  am  not  certain.  They  cure  burns  beyond 
credit.  I  have  seen  a  man  burnt  in  such  a  manner,  when  drunk, 
by  falling  into  a  fire,  that  I  did  not  think  he  could  recover;  yet 
they  cured  him  in  ten  days  so  that  he  went  about.  I  knew  another 
blown  up  with  powder,  that  was  cured  to  admiration.  I  never  saw 
an  Indian  have  an  ulcer  or  foul  wound  in  my  life ;  neither  is  there 
any  such  thing  to  be  found  amongst  them.  They  cure  the  pox  by  a 
berry  that  salivates  as  mercury  does ;  yet  they  use  sweatings  and 
decoctions  very  much  with  it,  as  they  do  almost  on  every  occasion ; 
and  when  they  are  thoroughly  heated  they  leap  into  the  river. 
They  cure  the  spleen,  which  they  are  much  addicted  to,  by  burning 
with  a  reed.  They  lay  the  patient  on  his  back,  so  put  a  hollow 
cane  into  the  fire,  where  they  burn  the  end  thereof  till  it  is  very 
hot,  and  on  fire  at  the  end.  Then  they  lay  a  piece  of  thin  leather 
on  the  patient's  belly,  between  the  pit  of  the  stomach  and  the  navel, 
so  press  the  hot  reed  on  the  leather,  v/hich  burns  the  patient  so  that 
you  may  ever  after  see  the  impression  of  the  reed  where  it  was 
laid  on,  which  mark  never  goes  oflf  so  long  as  he  lives." 

For  toothache  they  extracted  the  tooth  by  punching  it 
out  with  a  piece  of  cane  set  against  it  on  a  bit  of  leather. 

Among  other  of  Lawson's  observations  is  the  fol- 
lowing: 

"  The  struma  is  not  uncommon  amongst  these  savages,  and 
another  distemper  which  is  in  some  respects  like  the  pox,  but  is 
not  attended  with  gonorrhoea.  This  not  seldom  bereaves  them  of 
their  nose.  I  have  seen  three  or  four  of  them  rendered  most 
miserable  spectacles  by  this  distemper.  Yet  when  they  have  been 
so  negligent  as  to  let   it  run  on  so  far  without  curbing  of  it,  at 


32  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

last  they  make  shift  to  patch  themselves  up,  and  live  for  many 
years  after;  and  such  men  commonly  turn  doctors.  I  have  known 
two  or  three  of  these  no-nose  doctors  in  great  esteem  among  these 
savages." 

One  of  the  most  interesting  events  in  the  early  medical 
annals  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  settlements  was  the 
case  of  the  Indian  chief  Massasoit,  who  was  attended  to 
by  Edward  Winslow,  subsequently  governor  of  the  colony 
at  Plymouth.  News  came  to  the  latter  place  that  Mas- 
sasoit, who  had  always  been  on  most  friendly  terms  with 
the  settlers,  was  sick  unto  death,  and  it  was  decided  that 
it  would  be  wise  for  the  colonists  to  follow  the  Indian 
custom  and  manifest  their  friendship  to  him  by  sending 
some  of  their  members  to  call  on  him  and  express  their 
sympathy.  Edward  Winslow,  John  Hamden,  and  an 
Indian  named  Hobbamock  were  deputed  for  this  purpose. 
What  followed  is  best  told  as  nearly  as  possible  in  Wins- 
low's  own  words :  ^^ 

"  When  we  came  thither  we  found  the  house  so  full  of  men  as 
we  could  scarce  get  in ;  though  they  used  their  best  diligence  to 
make  way  for  us.  There  were  they  in  the  midst  of  their  charms 
for  him  making  such  a  hellish  noise,  as  it  distempered  us  that  were 
well ;  and  therefore  unlike  to  ease  him  that  was  sick.  About  him 
were  six  or  eight  women,  who  chafed  his  arms,  legs,  and  thighs, 
to  keep  heat  in  him." 

Winslow  made  his  presence  known  to  him,  and  told 
him  he  had  come  to  see  if  he  could  not  restore  him  to 
health,  and  asked  permission  to  administer  to  him  some 
medicine. 

"  Which  he  desired.  And  having  a  confection  of  many  comfort- 
able conserves  &c;  on  the  point  of  my  knife  I  gave  him  some; 
which  I  could  scarce  get  through  his  teeth.  When  it  was  dis- 
solved in  his  mouth,  he  swallowed  the  juice  of  it  whereat  those 

"  Good  News  from  New  England,  by  E.  Winslow. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  33 

that  were  about  him  much  rejoiced;  saying.  He  had  not  swallowed 
anything  in  two  days  before.  Then  I  desired  to  see  his  mouth, 
which  was  exceedingly  furred;  and  his  tongue  swelled  in  such  a 
manner,  as  it  was  not  possible  for  him  to  eat  such  meat  as  they 
had,  his  passage  [oesophagus]  being  stopped  up.  Then  I  washed 
his  mouth,  and  scraped  his  tongue ;  and  got  abundance  of  corrup- 
tion out  of  the  same.  After  which  I  gave  him  some  more  of  the 
confection ;  which  he  swallowed  with  more  readiness.  Then  he 
desiring  to  drink;  I  dissolved  some  of  it  in  water  and  gave  him 
thereof.  Within  half  an  hour,  this  wrought  a  great  alteration  in 
him,  in  the  eyes  of  all  that  beheld  him.  Presently  after,  his  sight 
began  to  come  to  him;  which  gave  him  and  us  good  encourage- 
ment. In  the  mean  time,  I  inquired,  how  he  slept;  and  when  he 
went  to  stool  ?  They  said,  he  slept  not  in  two  days  before ;  and 
had  not  had  a  stool  in  five.  Then  I  gave  him  more ;  and  told  him 
of  a  mishap  we  had,  by  the  way,  in  breaking  a  bottle  of  drink; 
which  the  Governor  also  sent  him ;  saj'ing,  If  he  would  send  any 
of  his  men  to  Patuxet,  I  would  send  for  more  of  the  same ;  also 
for  chickens  to  make  him  broth ;  and  for  other  things  which  I 
knew  were  good  for  him ;  and  would  stay  the  return  of  the 
messenger  if  he  desired." 

This  pleased  old  Massasoit  immensely,  and  messengers 
were  immediately  despatched  to  bring  "  such  physic  as 
the  Surgeon  durst  administer  to  him." 

Winslow  made  the  sick  man  a  broth  which  strength- 
ened him  greatly,  and  the  next  day,  feeling  himself  so 
much  improved,  Massasoit  got  Winslow  to  go  "  amongst 
those  that  were  sick  in  the  town ;  requesting  me  to  wash 
their  mouths  also,  and  give  to  each  of  them  some  of  the 
same  I  gave  him;  saying,  They  were  good  folk.  This 
pains  I  took  with  willingness;  though  it  were  much 
offensive  to  me,  not  being  accustomed  with  such  poison- 
ous savours." 

Massasoit,  being  a  self-willed  old  individual,  disobeyed 
some  of  Winslow's  instructions  in  the  matter  of  diet  and 
gorged  himself  on  a  very  rich  broth,  as  a  consequence 
of  which  indiscretion  he  suffered  a  relapse.  However, 
Winslow  managed  to  pull  him  through,  chiefly  by  judi- 

3 


34  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

cioiisly  refraining  from  giving  him  either  medicine  or 
food. 

This  cure  had  a  most  beneficial  effect  on  the  fortunes 
of  the  httle  group  of  Englishmen  at  Plymouth,  because 
Massasoit  was  so  filled  with  gratitude  at  his  recovery  that 
he  revealed  to  Winslow  the  existence  of  a  conspiracy 
among  the  Indians  to  massacre  the  English. 

Giles  Firmin,^^  who  had  been  an  apothecary  in  Sud- 
bury, England,  and  afterwards  was  one  of  the  deacons 
of  Boston  church,  was  held  in  high  esteem  as  a  physician. 
His  son,  Giles  Firmin,  Jr.,  came  to  Massachusetts  in 
1632.  He  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  the  first  person 
who  taught  medicine  in  this  country,  but  we  have  seen 
{supra)  that  Lambert  Wilson  had  been  engaged  for  this 
purpose  at  an  earlier  date.  He  had  received  his  education 
at  Cambridge,  which  was  the  hotbed  of  Puritanism  in 
England.  He  practised  medicine  in  this  country  in  Ips- 
wich. He  subsequently  studied  divinity  and  became  a 
clergyman  in  England. 

Eliot,  the  missionary  to  the  Indians,  on  September  24, 
1647,  wrote  to  Mr.  Shephard,  a  minister  at  Cambridge, 
as  follows : 

"  Our  young  Students  in  Physick  may  be  trained  up  better  than 
yet  they  bee,  who  have  onely  theoreticall  knowledge,  and  are  forced 
to  fall  to  practise  before  ever  they  saw  an  Anatomy  made,  or  duely 
trained  up  in  making  experiments,  for  we  never  had  but  one  Anat- 
omy in  the  Countrey,  which  Mr.  Giles  Firmin  (now  in  England)  did 
make  and  read  upon  very  well,  but  no  more  of  that  now."  " 

A  skeleton  was  formerly  called  an  anatomy,  hence  it 
would  appear  that  demonstrations  of  the  bones  were 
made  by  Firmin. 

"Thacher  makes  the  error,  probably  typographical,  of  calling 
him  Firmer. 

"  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Collections,  third  series,  vol. 
iv.  p.  57- 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  35 

On  October  2y,  1647,  the  General  Court  Records 
state, — 

"  We  conceive  it  very  necessary  yt  such  as  studies  physick,  or 
chirurgery  may  have  liberty  to  reade  anotomy  &  to  anotomize  once 
in  foure  yeares  some  malefactor  in  case  there  be  such  as  the  Courte 
shall  alow  of." 

William  Gager,  of  Boston,  is  spoken  of  by  Governor 
Winthrop  ^^  as  "  a  right  godly  man,  skillful  chirurgeon, 
and  one  of  the  deacons  of  the  congregation."  He  died, 
greatly  lamented,  in  September,  1630. 

Of  Samuel  Bellingham  and  Henry  Saltonstall,  who 
both  graduated  at  the  first  Harvard  commencement  in 
1642,  and  afterwards  got  their  medical  diplomas  in  Eu- 
rope, it  is  said,  "  both  were  reputed  learned  and  skilful 
physicians."  There  was  a  physician  named  Henry  Green- 
land at  Newberry,  Massachusetts,  from  1662  to  1675. 
tie  was  born  in  1628. 

In  a  letter  of  William  Leete  to  John  Winthrop,  Jr.,  he 
says,^''' — 

"  Mr.  Eliot  himself  is  under  Mr.  Greenland's  mercuriall  ad- 
ministrations, with  some  encouragement  in  its  operations,  yet  the 
issue  is  all  with  God." 

In  1637  a  Dr.  John  Fisk  settled  at  Salem  as  a  clergy- 
man, and  combined  the  practice  of  medicine  with  his 
religious  ministrations. 

John  Glover  was  one  of  the  chief  men  of  Dorchester, 
a  deputy  to  the  General  Court,  and  finally  one  of  the 
assistants  to  the  governor  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts. 
He  is  spoken  of  as  "  a  man  strong  for  the  truth,  a  plain, 

'"  History  of  New  England. 

"  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Collections,  fourth  series, 
vol.  vii. 


36  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

sincere  godly  man,  and  of  good  abilities."  ^^  In  1650 
he  went  to  Scotland  and  received  the  degree  of  M.D. 
from  the  University  of  Aberdeen. 

Charles  Chauncy  was  born  in  England  in  1589.  He 
studied  divinity  and  medicine  at  Cambridge,  and  from 
that  University  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  He  was 
chosen  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Cambridge,  but  volun- 
tarily declined  the  position.  He  became  a  clergyman  at 
Ware  in  England,  where  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
Archbishop  Laud  by  his  puritanical  proclivities.  He  gave 
up  his  parish  and  emigrated  to  America  in  1638.  In 
1654  he  was  made  president  of  Harvard  College,  which 
had  been  founded  in  the  year  that  he  came  to  this  country. 
This  position  he  held,  performing  its  duties  with  uni- 
versal approbation,  until  1671,  when  he  resigned.  He 
died  the  same  year,  aged  eighty-three  years.  He  is  con- 
stantly spoken  of  as  being  an  eminent  physician,  though 
no  details  of  his  work  in  that  capacity  have  descended 
to  us.  He  is  said  to  have  held  the  opinion  that  there 
should  be  no  distinction  between  physic  and  divinity.^ ^ 
He  had  six  sons,  all  of  whom  studied  medicine,  several 
of  them,  however,  returned  to  England  to  practise. 

Dr.  Charles  Chauncy's  successor  as  president  of  Har- 
vard College  was  Dr.  Leonard  Hoar,  who  graduated  from 
Harvard  College,  receiving  the  degree  of  B.x^.  in  1650. 
He  then  went  to  England  and  studied  medicine  at  Cam- 
bridge University.  He  was  made  president  of  Harvard 
in  1672.  "  The  students  were  too  much  indulged  in  their 
prejudices  against  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to  resign, 
March  16,  1674-75."  ^o 

"  Johnson,  quoted  by  Savage  in  his  edition  of  John  Winthrop's 
History  of  New  England. 

"  New  England  Biographical  Dictionary. 

^"  Hutchinson's  History  of  Massachusetts.     Foot-note  on  p.   174. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  37 

Matthew  Fuller,  probably  related  to  Dr.  Samue'  Fuller 
before  mentioned,  was  settled  first  at  Plymouth  in  1640, 
but  removed  to  Barnstable  in  1652,  and  died  there  in 
1678.  In  1673  he  was  appointed  surgeon-general  of  the 
provincial  forces  raised  by  Plymouth.  In  the  inventory 
of  his  estate  occurs  the  following  item :  "  Surgeon's 
chest  and  drugs,  £16.0.0.     Library,  £10.0.0." 

Thomas  Starr,  who  lived  in  Yarmouth  from  1640  to 
1670,  is  called  chirurgeon  many  times  in  the  town 
records.  Comfort  Starr  first  practised  surgery  in  New- 
ton, afterwards  Duxbury,  and  then  in  Boston,  where  he 
died  in  1663. 

Samuel  Seabury  practised  surgery  in  Duxbury,  where 
he  died  in  1680.  The  inventory  of  his  estate  included 
"Nicholas  Culpepper's  Practice  of  Physic,  £1.4.0.; 
Physician's  Practice,  is.;  Latin  Herbal,  £1.10.0.;  Art 
of  Distillation,  by  John  French,  2s. ;  Surgeon's  Instru- 
ments, I2S. ;   Antimonial  Cup,  5s." 

Thomas  Little,  born  in  Marshfield,  Plymouth  County, 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1695,  settled  at  Plymouth 
as  a  physician  about  1700,  and  died  there  in  1712,  aged 
thirty-eight  years.  He  was  also  a  merchant  and  held 
several  civil  offices.  He  left  a  surgeon's  chest  valued  at 
£17.10.0.  His  son,  Thomas  Little,  Jr.,  practised  medicine 
in  Chilward  in  1726.-^ 

Winthrop  mentions  Thomas  Oliver  as  a  physician  of 
skill  and  experience.  He  was  an  elder  of  the  Boston 
church,  and  is  mentioned  as  a  surgeon  in  1644.  Accord- 
ing to  Toner,^^  the  first  physician  of  Baintree  (now 
Quincy),  Massachusetts,  was  Dr.  John  Wilson,  who  died 


''  My    information    as    to    Fuller,    Starr,    Seabury,    and    Little    is 
derived  from  Thacher. 

^"  Contributions  to  Medical   Progress. 


38  THE   HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

there  in  1627.  There  was  another  John  Wilson,  the  son 
of  the  Rev.  John  Wilson,  pastor  of  the  first  church  built 
in  Boston,  who  was  born  in  1621,  and  graduated  from 
Harvard  at  its  first  commencement  in  1642.  He  be- 
came a  minister  at  Medfield,  and  lived  there  as  "  pastor, 
school-master,  and  physician"  until  his  death,  August  29, 
1691. 

One  New  England  clergyman  who  was  likewise  a 
practitioner  of  medicine,  Michael  Wigglesworth,  has  left 
us  a  poetical  resume  of  the  illness  prevalent  in  the  sickly 
season  of  1662.^^  I  have  transcribed  this  effusion  as 
giving  an  original  picture  of  the  way  a  season  of  pesti- 
lence impressed  a  puritanical  mind,  trained  to  a  spiritual 
as  well  as  a  strictly  professional  view  of  the  cases  he  was 
called  upon  to  treat: 

"  Our  healthful  dayes  are  at  an  end, 

And  sicknesses  come  on 
From  yeer  to  yeer,  becaus  ovr  hearts 

Away  from  God  are  gone — 
New  England,  where  for  many  yeers 

You  scarcely  heard  a  cough. 
And  where  Physicians  had  no  work, 

Now  finds  them  work  enough. 

"  Now  colds  and  coughs,  Rheums  and  sorethroats. 

Do  more  &  more  abound ; 
Now  Agues  sore  &  Feavers  strong 

In  every  place  are  found. 
How  many  houses  have  we  seen 

Last  Autumn,  and  this  spring, 
Wherein  the  heathful  were  too  few 

To  help  the  languishing. 

"*  God's  Controversy  with  New  England.  Written  in  the  time 
of  the  great  drought,  Anno  1662.  By  a  Lover  of  New  England's 
Prosperity.  Proceedings  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society, 
1871-73. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  39 

"  One  wave  another  followeth, 

And  one  disease  begins 
Before  another  ceases,  becaus 

We  turn  not  from  our  sins — 
We  stopp  our  ear  against  reproof, 

And  hearken  not  to  God; 
God  stops  his  ear  against  our  prayer, 

And  takes  not  off  his  rod." 


It  would  appear,  however,  that  as  late  as  1646  there 
must  have  been  a  great  dearth  of  medical  learning  in  the 
town  of  Boston,  from  the  following  curious  account 
which  Winthrop  ^^  gives  of  the  first  appearance  of  syphi- 
lis in  the  colonies : 

'■'  There  fell  out  a  loathsome  disease  at  Boston,  which  raised  a 
scandal  upon  the  town  and  country,  though  without  just  cause.    One 

of  the  town  ,  having  gone  cooper  in  a  ship  into  ,  at  his 

return  his  wife  was  infected  with  Lues  Venerea,  which  appeared 
thus ;  being  delivered  of  a  child  and  nothing  then  appearing,  but 
the  midwife  a  skilful  woman,  finding  the  body  sound  as  any  other, 
after  her  delivery  she  had  a  sore  breast,  whereupon  divers  neigh- 
bors resorting  to  her,  some  of  them  drew  her  breast,  and  others 
suffered  their  children  to  draw  her,  and  others  let  the  child  suck 
them,  (no  such  disease  being  suspected  by  any,)  by  occasion  whereof 
about  sixteen  persons,  men,  women,  and  children,  were  infected, 
whereby  it  came  at  length  to  be  discovered  by  such  in  the  town  as 
had  skill  in  physic  and  surgery,  but  there  was  not  any  in  the 
country  who  had  been  practised  in  that  cure.  But  (see  the  good 
providence  of  God)  at  that  very  season  there  came  by  accident  a 
young  surgeon  out  of  the  West  Indies,  who  had  had  experience  of 
the  right  way  of  the  cure  of  that  disease.  He  took  them  in  hand 
and  through  the  Lord's  blessing  recovered  them  all  in  a  short  time. 
And  it  was  observed  that  though  many  did  eat  and  drink  and  lodge 
in  bed  with  those  who  were  infected  and  had  sores,  etc.,  yet  none 
took  it  of  them  but  by  copulation  or  sucking.  It  was  very  doubtful 
how  this  disease  came  at  first.  The  magistrate  examined  the  hus- 
band and  wife,  but  could  find  no  dishonesty  in  either,  nor  any  prob- 
able occasion  how  they  should  take  it  by  any  other,  (and  the  hus- 
band was  found  free  of  it).     So  as  it  was  concluded  by  some,  that 

"*  History  of  New  England. 


40  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

the  woman  was  infected  by  the  mixture  of  many  spirits  of  men 
and  women  as  drew  her  breast,  (for  thence  it  began).  But  this 
is  a  question  to  be  decided  by  physicians." 

The  Puritans  placed  much  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  prayer 
to  reHeve  their  physical  as  well  as  moral  ills,  and  I  quote 
two  anecdotes  from  Winthrop  ^^  which  will  serve  to  show 
that  they  believed  their  prayers  to  have  been  directly 
answered. 

In  the  year  1644  "  One  of  the  deacons  of  Boston  Church,  Jacob 
Eliott,  (a  man  of  very  sincere  heart,  and  an  humble  frame  of 
spirit)  had  a  daughter  of  eight  years  of  age,  who  being  playing 
with  other  children  about  a  cart,  the  hinder  end  thereof  fell  upon 
the  child's  head  and  drove  a  piece  of  the  skull  before  it  into  the 
brain,  so  as  the  brains  came  out,  and  seven  surgeons,  (some  of 
the  country,  very  experienced  men,  and  others  of  the  ships  which 
rode  in  the  harbour)  being  called  together  for  advice,  etc.,  did 
all  conclude  that  it  was  the  brains  (being  about  half  a  spoonful  at 
one  time  and  more  at  other  times,)  and  there  was  no  hope  of  the 
child's  life,  except  the  piece  of  skull  could  be  drawn  out.  But  one 
of  the  ruling  elders  of  the  Church  an  experienced  and  skilful  sur- 
geon, liked  not  to  take  that  course  but  applied  only  plasters  to  it, 
and  withal  earnest  prayers  were  made  by  the  Church  to  the  Lord 
for  it,  and  in  six  weeks  time  it  pleased  God  that  the  piece  of  skull 
consumed,  and  so  came  forth,  and  the  child  recovered  perfectly, 
nor  did  it  lose  the  senses  at  any  time." 

The  second  story  is  as  follows : 

"  One  Bumstead,  a  member  of  the  church,  had  a  child  of  about 
the  same  age  (as  the  one  above  mentioned),  that  fell  from  a  gal- 
lery in  the  meeting-house  about  18  feet  high,  and  broke  the  arm 
and  shoulder,  (and  was  also  committed  to  the  Lord  in  the  prayers 
of  the  church,  with  earnest  desires  that  the  place  where  his  people 
assembled  to  his  worship  might  not  be  defiled  with  blood,)  and 
it  pleased  the  Lord  also,  that  this  child  was  soon  perfectly  re- 
covered." 

Judge  Sewall,  in  his  Diary,  records  a  case  in  which 
prayer  seems  to  have  been  unduly  exciting  to  the  sick  man. 

=°  Loc.  cit. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  41 

It  seems  it  was  customary,  when  the  patient  was  deemed 
to  be  ill  past  recovery,  for  his  friends  to  gather  and  make 
long  prayers  at  his  bedside.  The  judge,  it  would  appear, 
rather  enjoyed  such  occasions,  and  lost  no  opportunity 
to  be  present  and  lend  the  aid  of  his  prayers  to  the  unfor- 
tunate sick  man.    On  September  20,  1690,  he  writes, — 

"Mr.  Moody  and  I  went  before  the  others  came  to  neighbour 
Hurd  who  lay  dying,  where  also  Mr.  Allen  came  in.  Nurse  Hurd 
told  her  Husband  who  was  there  and  what  he  had  to  say;  whether 
he  desired  them  to  pray  with  him ;  He  said  with  some  earnestness, 
Hold  your  tongue,  which  was  repeated  three  times  to  his  wives 
repeated  entreaties;  once  he  said  Let  me  alone  or  Be  quiet  (whether 
that  made  a  fourth  or  was  one  of  the  three  do  not  remember)  and 
My  Spirits  are  gon.  At  last  Mr.  Moody  took  him  up  pretty  roundly 
and  told  him  he  might  with  some  labour  have  given  a  pertinent 
answer.  When  we  were  ready  to  come  away  Mr.  Moody  bid  him 
put  forth  a  little  Breath  to  ask  prayer,  and  said  it  was  the  last 
time  he  had  to  speak  to  him ;  At  last  ask'd  him,  do  you  desire 
prayer,  shall  I  pray  with  you.  He  answered,  Ay  for  God's  sake 
and  thank'd  Mr.  Moody  when  he  had  done.  His  former  carriage 
was  very  startling  and  amazing  to  us.  About  one  at  night  he  died. 
About  II  o'clock  I  supposed  to  hear  neighbour  Mason  at  prayer 
with  him  just  as  my  wife  and  I  were  going  to  bed." 

The  judge  dabbled  a  good  deal  in  medicine,  and  writes, 
in  his  famous  Diary,  very  entertainingly  of  some  of  his 
experiences.  He  strongly  advocated  prayer  at  the  bed- 
side of  the  sufferer,  as  he  quaintly  expresses  it,  "to  give 
him  a  lift  Heavenwards." 

Possibly  some  might  question  the  therapeutic  benefit 
of  a  dying  man  receiving  "  a  lift  Heavenwards." 

He  tells  us  of  a  Mr.  Brattle  he  visited,  and  who  in- 
formed the  judge  that  his  visits  were  not  welcome:  "  He 
plainly  told  me  that  frequent  visits  were  prejudicial  to 
him,  it  provoked  him  to  speak  more  than  his  strength 
would  bear,  would  have  me  come  seldom." 

In  times  of  much  sickness  or  when  an  epidemic  pre- 
vailed days  were   frequently  set  aside   for  fasting  and 


42  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

prayer.^^  The  earliest  fast-day  held  for  deliverance  from 
sickness  was  kept  in  Massachusetts  July  3,  1644.  The 
record  simply  states  that  "  there  was  much  sickness  in 
the  land,"  but  does  not  specify  the  nature  of  the  disease, 
or  diseases,  from  which  the  people  were  suffering. 

Winthrop  ^^  refers  to  the  unhealthfulness  of  the  spring 
of  1646,  and  says  there  was  a  malignant  fever  prevalent, 
"  whereof  some  died  in  five  or  six  days,  but  if  they  es- 
caped the  eighth  they  recovered,  and  divers  of  the 
churches  sought  the  Lord  by  public  humiliation,  and  the 
Lord  was  entreated,  so  as  about  the  middle  of  the  third 
month  it  ceased." 

On  June  11  the  cessation  of  this  sickness  was  recog- 
nized by  a  thanksgiving  for  this  "  Mercy  of  God  in  with- 
drawing his  afflicting  hand." 

In  1647  the  Barnstable  church  held  a  fast  on  July  22, 
because  there  was  "  sickness  upon  every  family  and  every- 
one in  every  family." 

In  1649  the  people  of  Plymouth  fasted  on  November 
15,  because  there  was  an  epidemic  among  the  children  of 
"  chin-cough  &  the  pockes."  Love  says  there  were  sev- 
eral other  fasts  because  of  this  epidemic,  and  that  there 
was  a  day  of  thanksgiving  for  the  cessation  of  it  on 
March  13,  1650. 

On  November  10,  1658,  Massachusetts  held  a  fast  be- 
cause of  sickness,  and  Connecticut  held  one  for  the  same 
reason  on  September  8  of  that  year. 

In  1 66 1  Connecticut  again  was  holding  fast-days 
because  of  an  epidemic,  and  Massachusetts  did  the  same 
in  1662. 

""For  information  on  this  subject  see  "The  Fast  and  Thanks- 
giving Days  of  New  England,"  by  W.  DeLoss  Love,  which  is  a 
most  exhaustive  and  interesting  work  on  the  subject. 

"  History  of  New  England. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  43 

In  1666  most  of  the  New  England  settlements  held 
fasts  because  of  their  affliction  with  the  smallpox.  In 
1663  a  public  fast  for  relief  from  smallpox  was  held  in 
New  York. 

Love^^  mentions  that  on  March  13,  1658,  the  Dutch 
in  New  Netherlands  held  a  public  fast  by  proclamation 
because  of  "  fevers  in  some  hamlets"  and  "  a  new  and 
never  heard  of  heresie  named  Quakers."  He  says  that 
the  sickness  continued,  and  in  consequence  fasts  were 
held  on  October  23,  1658,  on  April  2  and  October  15, 
1659,  and  on  March  24,  1660. 

In  1677  and  1678  there  were  fasts  held  in  the  New 
England  colonies  for  relief  from  smallpox. 

Love  ^^  says  that  on  July  10,  1690,  a  public  fast  was 
ordered  by  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  "  in  re- 
gard of  ye  troubls  yt  weer  upon  us  and  ye  wars  with 
French  &  Indians  and  ye  sicknes  yt  weer  amongst  us  as 
ye  feaver  and  small-pox." 

During  the  seventeenth  century  we  find  practically  no 
facts  of  medical  interest  in  the  history  of  New  Hamp- 
shire. For  medical  learning  she  seems  to  have  relied 
largely  upon  her  sister  colonies,  though  doubtless  there 
were  medical  practitioners  within  her  borders.  Con- 
necticut, as  has  been  mentioned,  had  a  man  of  great 
medical  fame  as  her  first  governor,  John  Winthrop,  Jr. 
While  serving  as  the  colony's  agent  in  London  he  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  founding  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  in  the  New  England  colonies  he  was  in  constant  de- 
mand for  his  medical  skill.  His  death  occurred  in  1661 
at  a  ripe  old  age.  Phineas  Fiske  was  born  in  Milford, 
Connecticut,  but  in  adult  life  practised  medicine  at  Had- 


'  Fast  and  Thanksgiving  Days  in  New  England. 
'  Loc.  cit. 


44  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

dam  until  his  death  in  1738,  at  the  age  of  eighty-five 
years.  He  graduated  from  Yale  in  1704,  and  was  a 
clergyman  as  well  as  a  physician.  Fiske  was  especially 
esteemed  for  his  success  in  the  treatment  of  epilepsy  and 
insanity.  His  son-in-law,  Dr.  Moses  Bartlett,  was  a 
distinguished  physician  of  Portland,  Connecticut,  where 
he  practised  for  over  thirty  years  previous  to  his  death  in 
1766.  He  was  also  a  clergyman,  having  studied  both 
theology  and  medicine  under  his  father-in-law.  Rhode 
Island  is  entitled  to  a  pre-eminent  position  out  of  all  rela- 
tion to  its  size  in  early  medical  annals.  One  of  its 
founders  was  Dr.  John  Clark,  a  London  physician,  who 
had  originally  settled  in  Boston  but  had  been  banished 
with  Roger  Williams.  He  was  pastor  of  the  first  church 
organized  in  Rhode  Island  in  1644,  and  also  held  the 
position  of  assistant  treasurer  of  the  colony.  He  died 
at  Newport  in  1676,  aged  sixty-seven  years.  The  name 
of  Bowen  was  long  famous  in  medical  affairs  in  Rhode 
Island.  The  first  of  the  name  was  Richard  Bowen,  who 
came  to  the  colony  in  1640.  He  numbered  among 
his  descendants  Drs.  Ephraim,  William,  and  Pardon 
Bowen. 

In  the  year  1633  the  General  Court  licensed  Captain 
John  Cranston  "  to  administer  physicke  and  practice 
chirurgerie,"  they  added,  "  and  is  by  this  Court  styled 
doctor  of  physick  and  chirurgery  by  the  Authority  of  this 
the  General  Assembly  of  this  Colony."  ^^  Toner  is  in- 
clined to  consider  this  as  possibly  the  first  medical  degree 
conferred  in  this  country,  but  it  can  hardly  be  looked  upon 
as  more  than  a  license  to  practise. 

Another  medical  man  of  note  was  a  Frenchman,  Pierre 
Ayrault,  who  came  to  Rhode  Island  in  1686, 

^^  Toner,  Annals  of  Medical  Progress. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  45 

Jabez  Brown  practised  medicine  at  Providence  in  1700. 

The  colony  of  New  York  was  early  supplied  with  com- 
petent medical  men,  and  some  of  them  occupied  promi- 
nent positions  in  public  life  as  well  as  in  their  profes- 
sional capacity. 

When  Director-General  William  Kieft  of  the  West 
India  Company  landed  in  March,  1638,  he  brought  with 
him  Gerritt  Schult  and  Hans  Kierstedt,  both  of  whom 
were  surgeons.  Kierstedt  married  Sarah,  the  daughter 
of  the  celebrated  midwife  Annetje  Jansen. 

The  names  of  William  Hays,  Peter  Vreucht,  Jacob 
Hendrickson  Varvanger,  Isaac  Jansen,  Jacob  Mal- 
lenancy,  and  John  Pau  have  descended  to  us  as  prac- 
tising medicine  in  New  York  during  the  years  from  1647 
to  1652. 

Johannes  La  Montague,  a  Huguenot,  was  held  in  much 
repute  as  a  physician.  He  was  likewise  a  member  of  the 
governor's  Council.  He  came  to  New  York  in  1637, 
and  in  1641  he  was  a  member  of  the  expedition  sent  to 
defend  Fort  Good  Hope. 

Samuel  Megapolensis  was  prominent  politically  as  well 
as  medically.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  College  and 
afterwards  from  the  University  of  Utrecht,  receiving 
from  the  latter  both  a  theological  and  a  medical  degree. 
He  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  New  York.  In  1664 
he  was  one  of  the  Dutch  commissioners  who  negotiated 
the  treaty  with  the  English  which  resulted  in  New  Am- 
sterdam becoming  New  York. 

Dr.  Abraham  Staats,  an  emigrant  from  Holland,  set- 
tled at  Fort  Orange  and  soon  became  very  eminent.  He 
was  concerned  in  making  treaties  with  the  Indians.  In 
1664  h's  house  at  Claverack  was  burned  by  the  latter  and 
his  wife  and  two  sons  perished  in  the  conflagration.  He 
left  a  son  named  Samuel,  who  studied  medicine  in  Hoi- 


46  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

land,  and  practised  with  much  success  in  New  York, 
where  he  died  in  171 5. 

In  1660  Jacob  D.  Commor  was  prominent  as  a  sur- 
geon in  New  York,  from  whence  he  later  removed  to  the 
Swedish  settlement  of  New  Castle  on  the  Delaware. 

About  the  year  1661  Jan  du  Parch  and  Dr.  J.  Hughes 
practised  medicine  in  New  York,  but  no  further  informa- 
tion concerning  them  is  available.  Alexander  D.  Curtis 
not  only  practised  medicine  in  the  colony  but  also  taught 
a  Latin  school.  He  left  the  colony  when  it  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  English. 

Gysbert  van  Imbroeck  and  Gerardus  Beekman  were 
two  physicians  in  the  colony  who  occupied  many  places 
of  public  trust  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

Toner  mentions  one  Giles  Geodinean,  a  French  Hu- 
guenot, who  received  letters  of  denization  in  New  York  in 
1686,  and  styled  himself  "  chirurgi-physician." 

In  1666  the  resident  surgeon  to  Fort  Albany  was  a 
Frenchman  named  De  Huise;  in  1689  ^  Scotchman,  Dr. 
Lockhart,  held  the  position. 

The  honor  of  performing  the  first  autopsy  in  this 
country  was  mistakenly  assigned  by  Dr.  Toner  to  Jo- 
hannes Kerfbyle,  who  had  received  his  medical  degree 
from  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  subsequently  settled 
in  New  York,  where  he  had  acquired  a  very  large  prac- 
tice. In  1690  Governor  Slaughter  died  under  circum- 
stances suggesting  the  possibility  that  he  had  been  poi- 
soned, and  Dr.  Kerfbyle  was  one  of  the  physicians 
appointed  by  the  Council  to  open  the  body  and  ascertain 
the  cause  of  death.  There  are,  however,  records  of  four 
other  autopsies  which  were  held  at  an  earlier  date  than 
the  one  on  Governor  Slaughter. 

Pennsylvania  was  settled  so  late  in  the  seventeenth 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  47 

century  that  we  find  but  little  of  historical  value  in  the 
medical  annals  of  the  colony  until  the  next  century  was 
getting  well  along  in  its  first  quarter.  There  is  a  letter 
extant  from  Charles  Gordon  in  New  Jersey  to  Dr.  John 
Gordon,  of  Montrose,  which  is  given  by  Henry.^^  It  was 
written  in  1685,  and  its  remarks  are  held  to  apply  to 
Philadelphia  as  well  as  to  the  colony  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Delaware.     He  says, — 

"  If  you  desire  to  come  hither  yourself  you  may  come  as  a  Planter 
or  Merchant,  but  as  a  Doctor  of  Medicine  I  cannot  advise  you ; 
for  I  hear  of  no  disease  here  to  cure  but  some  Agues,  and  cutted 
legs  and  fingers,  and  there  is  no  want  of  empirics  for  these  already ; 
I  confess  you  could  do  more  than  any  yet  in  America,  being  versed 
both  in  chirurgery  and  Pharmacie,  for  here  are  abundance  of 
curious  herbs,  shrubs  and  trees,  and  no  doubt  medicinal  ones  for 
making  of  drugs,  but  there  is  little  or  no  employment  in  this  way." 

Gabriel  Thomas  in  his  famous  Diary,  when  writing  of 
Pennsylvania,  remarks,  "  Of  lawyers  and  doctors  I  shall 
say  nothing,  because  the  country  is  peacable  and  healthy." 
Notwithstanding  this  fact  there  was  a  small  number  of 
physicians  among  the  early  settlers,  most  of  whom  were 
Welsh.  Two  of  them,  Thomas  Wynne  and  Thomas 
Lloyd,  entered  public  life  upon  their  arrival  in  the  colony, 
and  probably  did  not  practise  to  any  extent.  Watson  ^^ 
says  that  Wynne  had  practised  medicine  with  high  repu- 
tation in  London,  and  that  when  he  came  to  this  country 
his  brother,  who  was  also  a  physician,  came  with  him. 
I  can  find  no  further  mention  of  the  latter.  Thomas 
was  elected  Speaker  of  the  First  Provincial  Assembly. 
He  died  in  1691.  His  son-in-law,  Dr.  Edward  Jones, 
was  a  very  distinguished  physician,  and  also  a  member 

"  History  of  Medicine  in  Philadelphia,  p.  22,  also  quoted  by 
Norris. 

"Annals  of  Philadelphia,  vol.  ii.  p.  375. 


48  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

of  the  Provincial  Assembly.  His  son,  Evan  Jones,  and 
his  grandson,  John  Jones,  were  famous  for  their  medical 
skill  in  subsequent  years. 

Thomas  Lloyd  had  been  a  student  at  Oxford.  He 
became  first  deputy  governor  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  first  man  of  real  eminence  as  a  physician  in  Penn- 
sylvania was  Griffith  Owen,  a  Welshman,  who  came  over 
on  the  "  Welcome"  with  William  Penn.  He  was  emi- 
nent in  the  councils  of  the  Friends,  but  Norris  ^^  quotes 
Proud  as  saying  that  his  practice  as  a  physician,  "  in 
which  he  was  very  knowing  and  eminent,  rendered  him 
of  still  greater  value  and  importance  in  the  place  where 
he  lived."  Norris  also  quotes  the  oft-repeated  history  o£ 
the  first  known  amputation  performed  in  Pennsylvania 
as  told  in  the  Journal  of  Thomas  Story.  The  injury  re- 
quiring it  was  received  by  a  young  man  during  the  firing 
of  a  salute  in  honor  of  William  Penn's  second  visit  to  his 
colony.  The  victim's  arm  being  so  badly  injured  that 
amputation  was  "  resolv'd  upon  by  Dr.  Griffith  Owen 
(a  Friend),  the  Surgeon,  and  some  other  skillful  per- 
sons present,  which  accordingly  was  done  without  delay. 
But  as  the  arm  was  cut  ofT,  some  Spirits  in  the  Bason 
happened  to  take  Fire,  and  being  spilt  upon  the  Surgeon's 
Aprin,  set  his  Cloaths  on  fire;  and  there  being  a  great 
crowd  of  Spectators,  some  of  them  in  the  Way,  and  in 
Danger  of  being  scalded,  as  the  Surgeon  himself  was 
upon  the  Hands  and  Face;  but  running  into  the  street 
the  Fire  was  quenched;  and  so  quick  was  he  that  the 
patient  lost  not  very  much  Blood,  though  left  in  the  open 
bleeding  Condition." 

Norris  quotes  from  a  letter  of  William  Penn's  in  which 
he  speaks  of  him  as  "  tender  Griffith  Owen,  who  both  sees 

^^  Early  History  of  Medicine  in  Philadelphia,  p.  ii. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  49 

and  feels."  He  died  in  171 7,  aged  seventy  years.  He 
left  a  son,  Dr.  Griffith  Owen,  Jr.,  who  died  at  an  early 
age  in  1731. 

There  is  no  further  mention  of  any  physician  of  promi- 
nence in  Pennsylvania  until  the  arrival  of  Dr.  John 
Kearsley  in  171 1. 

There  are  only  four  names  of  medical  men  connected 
with  the  history  of  New  Jersey  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury which  have  descended  to  us, — Abraham  Pierson, 
Jonathan  Dickinson,  William  Turner,  and  Daniel  Cox. 
From  Toner  ^^  I  take  the  following  facts  concerning 
them: 

Abraham  Pierson  was  a  clergyman  as  well  as  a  physi- 
cian. He  was  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  and  after  gradu- 
ating at  Cambridge,  in  1632,  he  emigrated  to  America, 
arriving  at  Boston  in  1639.  From  Boston  he  went  to 
Southampton,  Rhode  Island,  and  subsequently,  in  1667, 
to  Newark,  New  Jersey,  where  he  died  in  1678. 

Jonathan  Dickinson  was  a  native  of  Hatfield,  Massa- 
chusetts. He  likewise  was  a  clergyman  as  well  as  a 
physician,  and  became  the  first  president  of  Princeton 
College  and  the  first  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
at  Elizabeth,  New  Jersey.     He  died  in  1747. 

William  Turner  studied  medicine  with  a  Frenchman 
named  Pinqueron  in  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1690, 
and  then  removed  to  Newark,  New  Jersey,  where  he 
practised  medicine  until  his  death,  which  occurred  subse- 
quently to  1750. 

Daniel  Cox  was  a  physician  in  London,  England,  but 
Toner  doubts  whether  he  ever  practised  his  profession  in 
this  country.  In  1690  he  purchased  the  greater  part  of 
West  Jersey  and  was  appointed  governor  of  his  grant. 

"*  Annals  of  Medical   Progress. 
4 


50  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

He  appointed  a  deputy  governor  rather  than  relinquish 
his  professional  business,  and  eventually  sold  his  grant  to 
Sir  Thomas  Lane. 

Besides  those  surgeons  who  occupied  official  positions 
in  relation  to  the  early  settlers  of  Virginia,  but  few 
names  of  medical  men  practising  in  that  colony  have 
descended  to  us.  Toner  mentions  a  Dr.  Green,  who 
practised  in  Gloucester  County,  Virginia,  where  he  died 
in  1767.  Thacher  gives  an  interesting  account  of  Dr. 
John  Mitchell,  who  came  to  Virginia  about  the  year  1700. 
He  was  a  native  of  England,  who  after  his  arrival  in  this 
country  settled  in  Urbanna,  a  small  town  on  the  Rap- 
pahannock. He  had  a  large  practice,  but  his  chief  fame 
is  based  on  his  botanical  work  and  on  his  "  Essay  on  the 
Causes  of  the  Different  Colors  of  People  of  Different 
Climates,"  which  was  published  in  1743.  He  also  wrote 
a  paper  on  yellow  fever  as  it  appeared  in  Virginia  in  the 
epidemics  of  1737,  1741,  and  1742.  Subsequently  this 
paper  fell  into  the  hands  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  who 
communicated  it  to  Dr.  Rush,  and  the  latter  acknowl- 
edged his  indebtedness  to  it  for  information  enabling 
him  to  detect  and  combat  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of 
1793  in  Philadelphia. 

The  Midwife. 

The  midwife  occupied  a  most  important  post  in  the 
community  in  the  early  settlements  of  this  country.  It 
was  deemed  beneath  the  dignity  of  male  physicians  to  act 
as  obstetricians,  consequently  the  women  monopolized 
the  practice.  In  those  days  families  averaged  much 
larger  numbers  of  children  than  is  the  present  rule. 
Tyler  ^^  says,  "  The  typical  household  of  New  England 

^°  History  of  American  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  95. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  51 

was  one  of  patriarchal  populousness,"  and  in  a  foot-note 
he  submits  some  examples, — that  of  Roger  Clap,  of  Dor- 
chester, who  had  fourteen  children,  among  whom  were 
Experience,  Waitstill,  Preserved,  Hopestill,  Wait, 
Thanks,  Desire,  Unite,  Supply;  of  Cotton  Mather,  who 
had  fifteen;  of  Benjamin  Franklin's  father,  who  had 
seventeen,  and  Sir  William  Phipps,  who  was  one  of 
twenty-six  children  of  the  same  father  and  mother. 

Marriage  seemed  to  be  looked  upon  with  peculiar  favor 
by  the  Puritans,  for  as  soon  as  a  man  lost  his  wife,  or  a 
woman  her  husband,  he  or  she  hastened  to  replace  the  loss 
by  wedding  again. 

Lodge  ^^  says  that  early  marriages  were  popular,  and 
women  in  consequence  became  "  old  maids"  unless  mar- 
ried young.  He  says,  "  marriages  took  place  usually  at 
a  very  early  period  of  life,  many  girls  becoming  wives  at 
sixteen  or  seventeen."  John  Dunton  speaks  of  a  Miss 
Wilkins,  an  old  maid  of  twenty-six,  looked  on  in  Boston 
as  a  "  desired  spectacle,"  and  John  Higginson  writes  of 
some  young  ladies  that  they  "  are  like  to  continue 
ancient  maids,  Sarah  being  twenty-five  or  twenty-six 
years  old." 

The  names  of  several  famous  midwives  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  settlements  have  come  down  to  us. 

I  have  mentioned  that  the  wife  of  Deacon  Samuel 
Fuller  was  wont  to  officiate  in  this  capacity. 

Green  ^^  quotes  the  following  extract  from  the 
records  of  the  town  of  Rehoboth,  Massachusetts,  on 
July  3,  1663  •  "  Voted  and  agreed  that  .  .  .  Mrs.  Bridget 
Fuller,  of  Plymouth  should  be  sent  to,  to  see  if  she  be 
willing  to  come  and  dwell  among  us,  to  attend  on  the 


"  History  of  the  English  Colonies  in  America,  p.  463. 
"  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts,  p.  54. 


52  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

office  of  a  midwife,  to  answer  the  town's  necessity,  which 
at  present  is  great."  This  invitation  was  extended  to  her 
after  her  husband's  death.  She  did  not  accept  it,  as  she 
died,  at  Plymouth,  the  next  year. 

The  most  famous  of  all  the  ancient  midwives,  made 
notorious  by  the  misfortunes  she  suffered,  was  Anne 
Hutchinson.  She  and  her  husband  came  to  Boston  from 
England  in  1634.  One  of  her  bitterest  enemies,  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Weld,  describes  her  ^^  as  "  of  a  haughty  and 
fierce  carriage,  of  a  nimble  wit  and  active  spirit,  and  a 
very  voluble  tongue,  more  bold  than  a  man,  though  in 
understanding  and  judgement  inferior  to  many  women." 
She  was  thirty-four  years  of  age  when  she  settled  in 
Boston,  and  she  was  only  suffered  to  remain  in  the  town 
for  four  years  before  she  was  banished.  She  held  very 
peculiar  religious  tenets,  not  at  all  suited  to  the  minds 
of  the  narrow-minded  bigots  who  then  ruled  Boston.  She 
held  weekly  religious  meetings  in  her  house,  at  which 
she  would  preach  and  pray.  As  Adams  points  out,  the 
religious  excitement  at  these  meetings  used  to  wax  high, 
and  soon  her  work  assumed  the  nature  of  what  would 
now  be  known  as  a  revival.  The  woman  seems  to  have 
finally  lost  her  head,  and  claimed  to  have  had  direct  in- 
spirations from  heaven.  Worst  of  all,  she  finally  pro- 
ceeded to  controvert  and  combat  some  of  the  views  held 
by  the  various  Puritan  preachers  of  Boston.  She  was 
summoned  before  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts, 
and  after  a  trial,  which  was  a  mere  parody  of  justice, 
and  throughout  which  the  poor  woman  was  browbeaten 
and  bullied  in  every  conceivable  way,  was  excommuni- 
cated and  banished.  She  went  to  Rhode  Island,  where 
she  subsequently  was  murdered  by  the  Indians. 

^^  Three  Episodes  in  Massachusetts  History,  by  C.  F.  Adams. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  53 

Winthrop  ^^  narrates  two  circumstances  of  her  career 
which  possess  interest  for  us.  The  first  is  concerning  a 
monstrosity  which  was  given  birth  to  by  Mary  Dyer,  a 
great  friend  of  Anne  Hutchinson's.  The  latter  was  the 
only  person  present  at  the  delivery  except  the  mid\vife, 
and  the  event  was  subsequently  referred  to  in  her  trial. 

"  The  wife  of  one  William  Dyer,  a  milliner  in  the  New  Exchange, 
a  very  proper  and  fair  woman,  and  both  of  them  notoriously  affected 
with  Mrs.  Hutchinson's  errours,  and  very  censorious  and  trouble- 
some, (she  being  of  a  very  proud  spirit  and  much  addicted  to  revela- 
tions,) had  been  delivered  of  a  child  some  few  months  before, 
October  17,  (1637)  and  the  child  buried,  (being  stillborn)  and 
viewed  of  none  but  Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  the  midwife,  one  Haw- 
kin's  wife,  a  rank  famulist  also ;  and  another  woman  had  a  glimpse 
of  it,  who  not  being  able  to  keep  counsel,  as  the  other  two  did, 
some  rumour  began  to  spread  that  the  child  was  a  monster.  One 
of  the  elders  hearing  of  it,  asked  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  when  she  was 
ready  to  depart,  where  upon  she  told  him  how  it  was,  and  said  she 
meant  to  have  it  chronicled,  but  excused  her  concealing  of  it  till 
then,  (by  advice,  as  she  said  of  Mr.  Cotton)  which  coming  to  the 
Governor's  knowledge,  he  called  another  of  the  magistrates  and 
that  elder,  and  sent  for  the  midwife  and  examined  her  about  it.  At 
first  she  confessed  only,  that  the  head  was  defective  and  misplaced, 
but  being  told  that  Mrs.  Hutchinson  had  revealed  all,  and  that  he 
intended  to  have  it  taken  up  and  viewed,  she  made  this  report  of 
it,  viz.  It  was  a  woman  child,  stillborn,  about  two  months  before 
the  just  time,  having  life  a  few  hours  before;  it  came  hiplings  till 
she  turned  it,  it  was  of  ordinary  bigness ;  it  had  a  face,  but  no  head, 
and  the  ears  stood  upon  the  shoulders,  and  were  like  an  apes ;  it 
had  no  forehead  but  over  the  eyes  four  horns,  hard  and  sharp ; 
two  of  them  were  above  one  inch  long,  the  other  two  shorter;  the 
eyes  standing  out  and  the  mouth  also,  the  nose  hooked  upward ; 
all  over  the  breast  and  back  full  of  sharp  pricks  and  scales,  like 
a  thornback ;  the  navel  and  all  the  belly,  with  the  distinction  of 
sex,  were  where  the  back  should  be,  and  the  back  and  hips  before, 
where  the  belly  should  have  been,  behind,  between  the  shoulders, 
it  had  two  mouths,  and  in  each  of  them  a  piece  of  red  flesh  sticking 
out,  it  had  arms  and  legs  as  other  children;  but  instead  of  toes 
it  had  on   each   foot   three  claws,   like   a  young   fowl,    with   sharp 

**  History  of  New  England,  vol.  i. 


54  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

talons.  The  Governor  speaking  with  Mr.  Cotton  about  it,  he  told 
him  the  reason  why  he  had  advised  them  to  conceal  it.  Firsts  Be- 
cause he  saw  a  providence  of  God  in  it,  that  the  rest  of  the  women, 
who  were  coming  and  going  in  the  time  of  her  travail,  should  then 
be  absent.  2.  He  considered,  that,  if  it  had  been  his  own  case,  he 
should  have  desired  to  have  had  it  concealed,  and  that  he  thought 
God  might  intend  only  the  instruction  of  the  parents,  and  such 
others,  to  whom  it  was  known,  etc.  The  like  apology  he  made  for 
himself  in  publick,  which  was  well  accepted. 

"  Jan.  2,  1638. 

"  The  Governor,  with  advice  of  some  other  of  the  magistrates 
and  elders  of  Boston  caused  the  said  monster  to  be  taken  up,  and 
though  it  were  much  corrupted,  yet  most  of  those  things  were  to 
be  seen,  as  the  horns  and  claws,  the  scales,  etc.  When  it  died  in 
the  Mother's  body,  (which  was  about  2  hours  before  birth)  the 
bed  whereon  the  Mother  lay  did  shake,  and  withal  there  was  such 
a  noisome  savour,  as  most  of  the  women  were  taken  with  extreme 
vomiting  and  purging,  so  as  they  were  forced  to  depart;  and 
others  of  them,  their  children  were  taken  with  convulsions,  (which 
they  never  had  before  nor  after,)  and  so  were  sent  for  home,  so 
as  by  these  occasions,  it  came  to  be  concealed. 

"  Another  thing  observable  was,  the  discovery  of  it,  which  was 
just  when  Mrs.  Hutchinson  was  cast  out  of  the  church.  For  Mrs. 
Dyer  going  forth  with  her,  a  stranger  asked  what  young  woman 
it  was.  The  others  answered,  it  was  the  woman  which  had  the 
monster;  which  gave  the  first  occasion  to  some  that  heard  to  speak 
of  it.  The  midwife,  presently  after  this  discovery,  went  out  of 
the  jurisdiction,  and  indeed  it  was  time  for  her  to  be  gone,  for  it 
was  known,  that  she  used  to  give  young  women  oil  of  Mandrakes 
and  other  stuff  to  cause  conception,  and  she  grew  into  great  sus- 
picion to  be  a  witch,  for  it  was  credibly  reported,  that,  when  she 
gave  any  medicines,  (for  she  practiced  physick),  she  would  ask 
the  party  if  she  believed  she  could  help  her,  etc.  Another  observ- 
able passage  was,  that  the  father  of  this  monster,  coming  home  at 
this  very  time,  was,  the  next  Lord's  day,  by  an  unexpected  provi- 
dence, questioned  in  the  church  for  divers  monstrous  errours,  as 
for  denying  all  inherent  righteousness,  etc.,  which  he  maintained 
and  was  for  the  same  admonished." 

Mary  Dyer  went  to  Rhode  Island  with  Mrs.  Hutchin- 
son, but  twenty-one  years  later  returned  to  Boston,  and 
fell  a  victim  to  religious  persecution,  being  executed  as  a 
Quaker,  on  June  i,  1660. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  55 

The  second  circumstance  concerning  Mrs.  Hutchinson, 
which  Winthrop  ^^  relates,  had  to  do  with  her  own  physi- 
cal condition.  It  appears  that  the  poor  woman  had  an 
hydatid  cyst  of  the  uterus,  but  the  governor  and  his 
associates  were  disposed  to  regard  the  case  entirely  from 
a  theological  point  of  view. 

"  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  being  removed  to  the  Isle  of  Aquiday,  in 
the  Narragansett  Bay,  after  her  time  was  fulfilled,  that  she  ex- 
pected deliverance  of  a  child,  was  delivered  of  a  monstrous  birth, 
which  being  diversely  related  in  the  country,  (and  in  the  open 
assembly  at  Boston  upon  a  lecture  day  declared  by  Mr.  Cotton  to 
be  27  several  lumps  of  man's  seed,  without  any  alteration  or  mix- 
ture of  anything  from  the  woman,  and  thereupon  gathered  that  it 
might  signify  her  errour  in  denying  inherent  righteousness,  but  that 
all  was  Christ  in  us,  and  nothing  of  ours  in  faith,  love,  etc.)  here- 
upon the  Governor  wrote  to  Mr.  Clarke,  a  physician  and  preacher 
to  those  of  the  island,  to  know  the  certainty  thereof,  who  returned 
him  this  answer.  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  six  weeks  before  her  delivery, 
perceived  her  body  to  be  greatly  distempered,  and  her  spirits  fall- 
ing, and  in  that  regard  doubtful  of  life,  she  sent  to  me,  etc.,  and 
not  long  after  (in  immoderate  fluore  uterino)  it  was  brought  to 
light,  and  I  was  called  to  see  it,  where  I  beheld,  first  unwashed, 
(and  afterwards  in  warm  water),  several  lumps,  everyone  of  them 
greatly  confused,  and  if  you  consider  each  of  them  according  to  the 
representation  of  the  whole,  they  were  altogether  without  form; 
but  if  they  were  considered  in  the  parts  of  each  lump  of  flesh,  then 
there  was  a  representation  of  immeasurable  distinct  bodies  in  the 
form  of  a  globe,  not  much  unlike  the  swims  of  some  fish,  so  con- 
fusedly knit  together  by  so  many  several  strings,  (which  I  conceive 
were  the  beginnings  of  veins  and  nerves,)  so  that  it  was  impossible 
either  to  number  the  small  round  pieces  in  every  lump,  much  less 
to  discover  from  whence  every  string  did  fetch  its  original,  they 
were  so  snarled  one  with  another.  The  small  globes  I  likewise 
opened,  and  perceived  the  matter  of  them  (setting  aside  the  mem- 
brane in  which  it  was  involved)  to  be  partly  wind  and  partly  water. 
Of  these  several  lumps  there  were  about  26,  according  to  the  rela- 
tion of  those,  who  were  narrowly  searched  into  the  number  of 
them.  I  took  notice  of  6  or  7  of  some  bigness ;  the  rest  were  small ; 
but  all  as  I  have  declared,  except  one  or  two  which  diflfered  much 

*"  History  of  New  England,  vol.   i.  p.  271. 


56  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

from  the  rest  both  in  matter  and  form,  and  the  whole  was  like 
the  [blank]  of  the  liver,  being  similar  and  everywhere  like  itself. 
When  I  had  opened  it  the  matter  seemed  to  be  blood  congealed. 
The  Governor,  not  satisfied  with  this  relation,  spake  after  with  the 
said  Mr.  Clarke,  who  thus  cleared  all  the  doubts :  The  lumps  were 
26  or  27,  distinct  and  not  joined  together;  there  came  no  secundine 
after  them ;  six  of  them  were  as  great  as  his  fist ;  the  rest  less 
than  other,  and  the  smallest  about  the  bigness  of  the  top  of  his 
thumb.  The  globes  were  round  things  included  in  the  lumps,  about 
the  bigness  of  a  small  Indian  bean,  and  like  the  pearl  in  a  man's 
eye.  The  two  lumps,  which  differed  from  the  rest,  were  like  liver 
or  congealed  blood,  and  had  no  small  globes  in  them  as  the  rest 
had.  Mr.  Cotton,  next  lecture  day,  acknowledged  his  errour,  etc., 
and  that  he  had  his  information  by  a  letter  from  her  husband, 
etc." 

Jane  Hawkins,  who  delivered  Mary  Dyer  of  her  mon- 
strosity, was  a  very  well-known  midwife,  and  also  used 
to  act  as  a  physician,  and  had  the  reputation  of  being  a 
witch.  Thomas  Welde  ^^  says  she  was  "  notorious  for 
familiarity  with  the  devil."  At  the  session  of  the  General 
Court  of  Massachusetts  held  in  March,  1637-38,  the  fol- 
lowing record  appears : 

"  Jane  Hawkins  the  wife  of  Richard  Hawkins  had  liberty  till  the 
beginning  of  the  third  Mo  called  May,  &  the  magistrates  (if  shee 
did  not  depart  before)  to  dispose  of  her,  &  in  the  meantime  shee 
is  not  to  meddle  in  surgery,  or  physick,  drinks  or  oyles,  nor  to 
question  matters  of  religion  except  with  the  elders  for  satisfaction." 

Later  at  the  session  of  the  General  Court,  in  June, 
1641,  it  was  resolved  that  "Jane  Hawkins  is  enjoined 
to  depart  away  tomorrow  morning,  &  not  to  returne 
againe  hither  upon  paine  of  a  severe  whipping,  &  such 
other  punishment,  as  the  Court  shall  thinke  mete.  &  her 
sonnes  stand  bound  in  20  £  to  carry  her  away  according 
to  order." 

It  was  fortunate  for  Jane  that  she  lived  before  the 

*^A  Short  Story,  etc.,  1644. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  57 

fearful  outbreak  against  the  witches  in  1692,  as  her  fate 
would  then  have  been  sealed. 

Toner  *^  mentions  a  well-known  midwife  of  Boston, 
Ruth  Barnaby  by  name,  who  pursued  her  occupation  in 
that  town  for  over  forty  years.  She  was  born  at  Marble- 
head  in  1664,  and  died  on  the  12th  of  February,  1765, 
aged  one  hundred  and  one  years.  When  there  was  an 
epidemic  of  smallpox  in  Boston  in  1764,  she  insisted  upon 
being  inoculated,  though  upward  of  one  hundred  years 
old.  She  manifested  a  striking  proof  of  the  value  of 
inoculation,  as  she  escaped  the  disease,  although  several 
other  members  of  her  family  had  it. 

The  practice  of  midwifery  would  seem  to  have  been 
conducive  to  longevity,  as  in  1730  there  was  published 
at  Philadelphia  an  "  Elegy  on  the  Death  of  the  Ancient, 
Venerable,  and  Useful  Matron  and  Midwife,  Mrs.  Mary 
Broadwell,  who  rested  from  her  labours  Jan.  2,  1730, 
aged  100  years  and  one  day." 

The  following  epitaph  from  the  Phipps  Street  burying- 
ground  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  is  often  quoted 

for  its  oddity : 

"  Here  lyes  Interred  ye  Body  of 
Mrs.   Elizabeth   Phillips,   Wife 

to  Eleazer  Phillips,  Who 
was  Born  in  Westminister,  in  Great 
Britain.  &  Commission'd  by  John 
Lord.  Bishop  of  London,  in  ye  Year 
1718  to  ye  Office  of  a  Midwife;    &  came 
to  this  Country,  in  ye  Year  1719,  &  by 
ye  Blessing  of  God,  has  brought  into 
this  world  above  3000  Children ; 
Died  May  6th  1761.     Aged  76  Years." 

Some  one  has  scratched  a  figure  i  before,  and  a  o 
after,  the  3000,  so  that  it  reads  130,000. 

*^  Contributions  to  Medical  Progress. 


58  THE  HISTORY  OF  MEDICINE 

Poor  Margaret  Jones  was  a  doctress  of  New  England 

who  came  to  a  most  untimely  end,  as  will  be  seen  from 

the    following    narrative    written    by    Governor    Win- 

throp :  ^2 

"  Year  1648 
At  this  Court  one  Margaret  Jones,  of  Charlestown,  was  indicted 
and  found  guilty  of  witchcraft,  and  hanged  for  it.  The  evidence 
against  her  was,  i.  That  she  was  found  to  have  such  a  malignant 
touch,  as  many  persons  (men,  women,  and  children),  whom  she 
stroked  or  touched  with  any  affection  or  displeasure,  etc.  were 
taken  with  deafness,  or  vomiting,  or  other  violent  pains  or  sick- 
ness. 2.  She  practising  physick,  and  her  medicines  being  such 
things  as  (by  her  own  confession)  were  harmless,  as  Aniseseed, 
liquors,  etc.  yet  had  extraordinary  violent  effects.  3.  She  would 
use  to  tell  such  as  would  not  make  use  of  her  physick,  that  they 
would  never  be  healed,  and  accordingly  their  diseases  and  hurts 
continued,  with  relapses  against  the  ordinary  course,  and  beyond 
the  apprehension  of  all  physicians  and  surgeons.  4.  Some  things 
which  she  foretold  came  to  pass  accordingly;  other  things  she 
could  tell  of  (as  secret  speeches  etc)  which  she  had  no  ordinary 
means  to  come  to  the  knowledge  of.  5.  She  had  (upon  search)  an 
apparent  teat  in  her  secret  parts  as  fresh  as  if  it  had  been  newly 
sucked,  and  after  it  had  been  scanned,  upon  a  forced  search,  that 
was  withered,  and  another  began  on  the  opposite  side.  6.  In  the 
prison  in  the  clear  daylight  there  was  seen  in  her  arms,  she  sitting 
on  the  floor,  and  her  clothes  up  etc.,  a  little  child,  which  ran  from 
her  into  another  room,  and  the  officer  following  it,  it  was  vanished. 
The  like  child  was  seen  in  two  other  places,  to  which  she  had  no 
relation ;  and  one  maid  that  saw  it,  fell  sick  upon  it,  and  was  cured 
by  the  said  Margaret,  who  used  means  to  be  employed  to  that 
end.  Her  behaviour  at  her  trial  was  very  intemperate,  lying  no- 
toriously, railing  upon  the  jury,  and  witnesses,  etc.  and  in  the  like 
distemper  she  died.  The  same  day  and  hour  she  was  executed, 
there  was  a  very  great  tempest  at  Connecticut,  which  blew  down 
many  trees,  etc." 

Sarah,  the  wife  of  John  Alcock,  was  also  skilled  in 
medicine,  as  appears  from  the  Roxbury  Church  Records, 
which  Green  ^^  has  quoted,  for  November  27,  1665: 

^'  History  of  New  England,  vol.  ii.  p.  326. 
**  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  59 

"  Mrs.  Sarah  Alcock  dyed,  a  vertous  woman,  of  vnstained  life, 
very  skilful  in  physick  &  chirurgery,  exceeding  active  yea  vnwearied 
in  ministering  to  ye  necessities  of  others.  Her  workes  praise  her 
in  ye  gates." 

Toner  ^^  quotes  a  New  York  City  ordinance,  passed 
July  16,  1716,  concerning  the  duties  of  midwives : 

"  It  is  ordained  that  no  woman  within  this  corporation  shall  ex- 
ercise the  employment  of  midwife  until  she  have  taken  oath  before 
the  mayor,  recorder,  or  an  alderman,  (the  terms  of  which  are 
prescribed,)  to  the  following  effect:  That  she  will  be  diligent  and 
ready  to  help  any  woman  in  labor,  whether  poor  or  rich;  that  in 
time  of  necessity  she  will  not  forsake  the  poor  woman  and  go  to 
the  rich;  that  she  will  not  cause  or  suffer  any  woman  to  name  or 
put  any  other  father  to  the  child,  but  only  him  which  is  the  very 
true  father  thereof,  indeed,  according  to  the  utmost  of  her  power ; 
that  she  will  not  suffer  any  woman  to  pretend  to  be  delivered  of 
a  child  who  is  not  indeed,  neither  to  claim  any  other  woman's  child 
for  her  own ;  that  she  will  not  suffer  any  woman's  child  to  be 
murdered  or  hurt ;  and  as  often  as  she  shall  see  any  peril  or 
jeopardy,  either  in  the  mother  or  child,  she  will  call  in  other  mid- 
wives  for  counsel ;  that  she  will  not  administer  any  medicine  to 
produce  miscarriage;  that  she  will  not  enforce  a  woman  to  give 
more  for  her  services  than  is  right ;  that  she  will  not  collude  to 
keep  secret  the  birth  of  a  child ;  will  be  of  good  behaviour ;  will 
not  conceal  the  births  of  bastards,  &c." 

Annetje  Jansen,  sometimes  known  as  Anneke  Jan,  who 
owned  a  large  part  of  the  present  site  of  New  York  City, 
was  a  very  skilful  midwife.  She  had  a  daughter  Sarah, 
who  married  Dr.  Hans  Kierstedt,  who  practised  medicine 
in  that  city  from  1638  to  1661. 

There  are  many  instances  found  in  the  ancient  chroni- 
cles of  juries  of  women  being  impanelled  to  act  in  certain 
cases.  Thus  in  Salem,  New  Jersey,  the  following  record 
appears  in  1732  in  an  indictment  for  petty  larceny:^" 

"  Loc.  cit. 

*"  R.  G.  Johnson,  An  Historical  Account  of  the  First  Settlement 
of  Salem,  in  West  Jerseys. 


6o  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

1732.  Indictment  for  Petty  Larceny.  "  Is  ordered  by  the  Court 
that  Eliza  Crook  receive  twenty  lashes  well  laid  on  her  bare  back, 
at  the  common  whipping  post,  and  that  she  stands  committed  till 
she  pays  fees.  The  said  Eliza  Crook  prays  delay  of  the  said  whip- 
ping because  she  sayth  she  is  quick  with  child.  And  now  a  jury 
of  matrons  were  summoned  to  wit :  Susannah  Goodwin,  Sarah 
Hunt,  Ann  Grant,  Mary  Grey,  Eliza  Backett,  Sarah  Test,  Eliza- 
beth Hall,  Phoebe  Saterthwaite,  Ann  Woodnutt,  Eliza  Huddy, 
Eliza  Axford,  and  Sarah  Fithian,  being  duly  qualified  according 
to  law,  do  say  that  Eliza  Crook  is  quick  with  a  living  child.  On 
motion  of  the  Attorney  General,  the  said  Eliza  Crook  is  committed 
into  the  sheriffs  custody,  till  she  be  delivered  of  the  said  child,  and 
then  to  receive  her  punishment." 

In  Judge  Sewall's  Diary  *^  for  Thursday,  February  24, 
1680,  is  the  following  account  of  a  jury  of  women  in 
Massachusetts : 

"  This  morn  the  wife  of  Mr.  Elias  Row  is  found  dead  in  her 
bed;  much  blood  about  her,  so  some  think  she  was  choak'd  with 
it.  A  Jury  was  empanelled  and  6  grave  matrons  and  a  Chi- 
rurg[eon]  to  view  the  corpse  to  see  if  any  violence  had  been  offered 
her ;  found  none ;  she  and  her  Husband  seldom  lay  together ;  she 
was  given  to  drink  and  quarelling.  Her  death  puts  in  mind  of 
the  Proverb  wherein  we  say  such  an  one  hath  drunk  more  than  he 
hath  bled  today." 

The  practice  of  obstetrics  by  men  was  regarded  with 
popular  disfavor  until  well  after  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  in  this  country. 

The  first  record  of  a  man  officiating  in  the  capacity  of 
an  obstetrician  of  which  we  have  information  is  to  be 
found  in  the  notice  of  the  death  on  July  22,  1745,  of  a 
doctor  of  New  York,  whose  name  was  Dupuy : 

"  Last  night,  died  in  the  prime  of  life,  to  the  almost  universal 
regret  and  sorrow  of  this  city,  Mr.  John  Dupuy,  M.D.,  a  man  mid- 
wife, in  which  last  character  it  may  be  truly  said  as  David  did  of 
Goliah's  sword,  there  is  none  like  him." 

"  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Collection,  fifth  series, 
vol.  vi. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  6i 

Dr.  John  Moultrie  came  to  this  country  and  began  the 

practice  of  medicine  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in 

1733,  remaining  in  practice  until  1773,  during  most  of 

which  time  he  stood  at  the  very  head  of  his  profession  in 

that  city: 

"  He  was  especially  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  obstetrics  and 
his  death  was  regarded  as  a  public  calamity,  several  of  the  ladies 
of  Charleston  bedewed  his  grave  with  tears,  and  went  into  mourning 
on  the  occasion.  The  year  after  his  decease  was  distinguished  by 
the  deaths  of  several  women  in  childbirth.  While  he  lived  they 
thought  themselves  secure  of  the  best  assistance  in  the  power  of 
man  or  of  art,  in  cases  of  extremity.  In  losing  him  they  lost  their 
hopes.  Depressing  fears  sunk  their  spirits,  and  in  an  unusual 
number  of  cases  produced  fatal  consequences."  ** 

In  1754  Dr.  James  Lloyd  settled  in  Boston,  and  was 
probably  the  first  medical  man  in  Massachusetts  to  devote 
himself  solely  to  the  practice  of  midwifery. 

The  first  man  in  New  Jersey  who  made  a  specialty  of 
obstetric  work  was  Dr.  Atwood,  who  began  the  exclu- 
sive practice  of  that  branch  of  the  medical  art  in  1762. 

Dr.  William  Shippen  was  the  first  physician  to  give 
a  course  of  lectures  on  midwifery  in  this  country,  and 
was  the  most  prominent  obstetrician  of  Philadelphia. 

Dr.  John  V.  B.  Tennent,  of  New  Jersey,  was  the  first 
professor  of  midwifery  in  the  Medical  School  of  New 
York,  and  was  a  distinguished  obstetrician  of  that  city. 

Green  ^^  quotes  the  follovv'ing  advertisement  from  The 

Boston  Evening  Post  and  the  General  Advertiser  for 

November  10,  1781  : 

"  The  Physicians 

of  the  Town  of  Boston 

Hereby    inform    the    Public,    that,    in    Consideration    of    the    great 

Fatigue  and  inevitable  Injury  to  their  Constitutions,  in  the  Practice 

^Thacher. 

"  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts. 


62  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

of  Midwifery,  as  well  as  the  necessary  Interruption  of  the  other 
Branches   of   their    Profession,   they   shall,    for   the   future,   expect, 
that  in  Calls  of  this  kind,  the  Fee  be  immediately  discharged. 
"Boston,  Nov.  6,  1781." 

The  Earliest  Recorded  Autopsies  in  America.^'* 

The  earliest  mention  of  an  autopsy  performed  in 
America  is  to  be  found  in  "  An  Account  of  Two  Voy- 
ages to  New  England,"  published  at  London  in  1674  by 
John  Josselyn,  an  Englishman,  who  had  spent  some  time 
in  New  England.     He  writes : 

"A  young  maid  that  was  troubled  with  a  sore  pricking  at  her 
heart,  still  as  she  leaned  her  body  or  stept  down  with  her  foot  to 
the  one  side  or  the  other ;  this  maid  during  her  distemper  voided 
worms  of  the  length  of  a  finger,  all  hairy  with  black  heads ;  it  so 
fell  out  that  the  maid  dyed ;  her  friends  desirous  to  discover  the 
cause  of  the  distemper  of  her  heart,  had  her  opened,  and  found 
two  crooked  bones  growing  upon  the  top  of  the  heart,  which  as 
she  bowed  her  body  to  the  right  or  left  side  would  job  their  points 
into  one  and  the  same  place,  till  they  had  worn  a  hole  quite 
through." 

Dr.  S.  A.  Green  refers  to  this  case,  and  mentions 
several  others  which  he  found.  Thus,  in  the  records 
of  Roxbury  Church,  on  August  20,  1674,  is  the  follow- 
ing: 

"  John  Bridge,  died  of  ye  Winde  Collick  and  was  buried  the 
day  following.  His  body  was  opened.  He  had  sundry  small  holes 
in  his  stomach  &  bowels,  &  one  hole  in  his  stomach  yt  a  man's  fist 
might  passe  through,  wch  is  thought  was  rent  wth  vyolent  straining 
to  vomit  the  night  before  he  dyed,  for  the  watchers  observed  yt 
something  seemed  to  rend  wth  in  him,  and  he  said  of  it  I  am  a  dead 
man." 


^^  The  following  account  of  the  autopsies  first  held  in  this  country 
appeared  in  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Journal  for  February  17, 
1900,  and  I  am  indebted  to  the  Journal  for  permission  to  repub- 
lish it. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  63 

Green  also  found  in  the  records  of  the  Essex  County 
Court,  on  leaf  46  of  the  thirtieth  volume,  the  accounts  of 
two  other  autopsies. 

On  June  i,  1676,  an  examination  was  made  of  the  body 
of  Jacob  Goodale  in  the  complaint  against  Giles  Corey. 
The  jury's  finding  was : 

"  Several  wrongs  he  hath  had  done  on  his  body,  as  upon  his  left 
arme  and  upon  his  right  thigh,  a  great  bruise,  wch  is  very  much 
svv^old.  and  upon  the  reign  of  his  backe.  in  colour,  differinge  from 
the  other  parts  of  his  body  we  caused  an  incision  to  be  made  much 
bruised  and  Run  with  a  gelly  and  the  skin  broke  upon  the  outside 
of  each  buttocke. 

"  Sworne  to  30;    4(?)  mo.  "j^^!' 

Cotton  Mather  ^^  says  of  this  case : 

"  That  about  Seventeen  Years  ago  Giles  Cory  kept  a  man  in  his 
House,  that  was  almost  a  Natural  Fool ;  which  Man  Dy'd  sud- 
denly. A  Jury  was  Impannel'd  upon  him,  among  whom  was  Dr. 
Zorobbabel  Endicot ;  who  found  the  man  bruised  tu  Death,  and 
having  dodders  of  Blcod  about  his  Heart." 

The  other  autopsy  was  held  on  May  2,  1678,  and  the 
report  on  the  result  was  made  by  the  "  Chirurgeon :" 

"  Search  the  Body  of  one  called  Edward  Bodye ;  I  made  In- 
cision upon  the  parte  of  his  Body  which  was  most  suspitious  which 
was  upon  the  Temporall  Muscle ;  I  layd  the  Bones  Beare ;  wee 
could  nott  find  any  fracture  in  the  least  neither  was  the  flesh  in  any 
wise  corrupted  or  putrified." 

Judge  Sewall,  in  his  Diary,  mentions  an  autopsy  per- 
formed upon  the  body  of  an  Indian  who  had  been  hung. 
The  post-mortem  took  place  on  September  22,  1676. 

Thus  there  are  records  of  at  least  four  autopsies  which 
antedate  that  performed  on  the  body  of  Governor  Slaugh- 
ter, which  is  very  generally  considered  to  have  been  the 
first  of  which  we  have  any  record. 

"  Wonders  of  the  Invisible  World. 


64  THE  HISTORY  OF  MEDICINE 


CHAPTER    II. 

EPIDEMIC  SICKNESS  AND  MORTALITY  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 
FROM  ITS  EARLIEST  DISCOVERY  BY  THE  ENGLISH  TO 
THE   YEAR    180O. 

When  one  considers  the  circumstances  under  which 
the  early  immigrants  to  North  America  made  the  passage 
across  the  ocean,  it  seems  marvellous  that  so  large  a 
number  survived  to  make  the  landing.  In  small,  over- 
crowded ships,  without  sanitary  equipment,  with  insuffi- 
cient supplies  of  food  and  medicine,  and  the  dreary  length 
of  time  which  was  necessarily  consumed  on  the  voyage, 
the  heavy  mortality  rate  aboard  the  ships  was  not  at  all 
to  be  wondered  at. 

Governor  John  Winthrop  left  his  wife  in  England 
when  he  came  to  America,  and  his  letters  to  her  con- 
tained much  sage  advice  as  to  what  she  should  do  when 
she  made  the  voyage  to  join  him.  July  23,  1630,  he 
writes,  after  giving  her  much  counsel  as  to  provisions 
for  the  voyage,  bedding,  clothing,  etc.,  "  &  for  the  phy- 
sick  you  shall  need  no  other,  but  a  pound  of  Doctor 
Wrights'  Electuaria  lenitivii,  &  his  direction  to  use  it, 
a  gallon  of  scurvy  grease  to  drinke  a  little  5 ;  or  6;  morn- 
inges  togither,  wth  some  saltpeter  dissolved  in  it,  &  a 
little  grated  or  sliced  nutmege."  Writing  March  28, 
1 63 1,  he  says,  "  Remember  to  bringe  juice  of  lemons  to 
sea  with  thee,  for  thee  and  thy  company  to  eate  wth  yor 
meate  as  sauce." 

On  November  29,  1630,  he  writes  her  of  the  many 
deaths  which  have  occurred  in  the  little  settlement :  "  We 
conceive  that  this  disease  grew  from  ill  diet  at  sea,  & 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  65 

proved  infectious.  I  write  this  not  to  discourage  thee, 
but  to  warne  thee  &  others  to  provide  well  for  the  sea 
&  by  Gods  helpe  the  passage  will  be  safe  &  easy  how 
longe  so  ever." 

John  Josselyn  ^  advises  voyagers  to  carry  "  juice  of 
Lemons  well  put  up  to  cure,  or  prevent  the  scurvy,"  and 
"  to  prevent  or  take  away  Sea  sickness,  Conserve  of 
^^'ormwood  is  very  proper,  but  these  following  Troches 
I  prefer  before  it.  First  make  paste  of  Sugar  and  Gum- 
Dragagant  [Tragacanth]  mixed  together,  then  mix 
therewth  a  reasonable  quantitie  of  the  powder  of  Cin- 
namon and  Ginger,  and  if  you  please  a  little  Musk  also, 
and  make  it  up  into  Roules  of  several  fashions,  which 
you  may  gild,  of  this  when  you  are  troubled  in  )^our 
Stomach,  take  and  eat  a  quantity  according  to  discre- 
tion." 

One  of  the  most  disastrous  attempts  to  take  out  a 
colony  to  the  New  World  was  that  made  by  Francis 
Blackwell,  one  of  the  leading  Puritans  in  Amsterdam. 
Blackwell  with  his  fellow-emigrants  sailed  for  Virginia 
in  161 8.  There  were  one  hundred  and  eighty  of  them 
crowded  into  a  very  small  vessel.  Disease  broke  out 
among  them  and  proved  fatal  to  Blackwell  and  the  cap- 
tain of  the  ship.  By  the  time  Virginia  was  reached  one 
hundred  and  thirty  deaths  had  occurred  on  the  vessel. 
This  fearful  result  of  the  earliest  attempt  made  by  the 
Puritans  to  reach  New  England  in  their  search  for  re- 
ligious liberty  seems  to  have  discouraged  all  efforts  at 
subsequent  attempts  for  some  time,  but  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  fruitful  of  much  result  as  an  object-lesson 
how  to  avoid  similar  disasters. 

'  An  Account  of  Two  Voyages  to  New  England,  by  John  Jos- 
selyn, Gent.  London  1674.  Reprinted  in  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society  Collections,  third  series,  vol.  iii. 

5 


66  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Coming  down  to  a  later  period,  in  1682,  the  ship 
which  brought  WilHam  Penn  to  this  country  lost  thirty 
of  its  company  by  smallpox  on  the  voyage.  The  account 
left  us  by  the  Rev.  Francis  Higginson  of  his  voyage  to 
this  country  stands  out  in  pleasing  contrast  to  almost  all 
of  the  narratives  left  by  his  contemporaries.  The  vessel 
was  the  "  Lion's  Whelp,"  and  was  apparently  a  stanch 
and  seaworthy  ship,  for  he  says  the  passage  was  "  short 
and  speedy,"  lasting  "  6  weeks  and  3  days."  He  places 
this  as  among  the  remarkable  things  of  their  passage, 
and  among  others  in  the  same  category, — 

"  Thirdly,  our  passage  was  also  healthful!  to  our  passengers, 
being  freed  from  the  great  contagion  of  the  scurvie  and  other 
maledictions,  which  in  other  passages  to  other  places  had  taken 
away  the  lives  of  many.  And  yet  we  were  in  all  reason  in  won- 
derful danger  all  the  way,  our  ship  being  greatly  crowded  with 
passengers;  but  through  God's  great  goodness  we  had  none  that 
died  of  the  pockes  but  that  wicked  fellow  that  scorned  at  fasting 
and  prayer.  There  was  indeed  two  little  children,  one  of  my  owne 
and  another  beside;  but  I  do  not  impute  it  meerely  to  the  passage; 
for  they  were  both  very  sickly  children,  and  not  likely  to  have 
lived  long,  if  they  had  not  gone  to  sea.  And  take  this  for  a  rule, 
if  children  be  healthfull  when  they  come  to  sea,  the  younger  they 
are  the  better  they  will  endure  the  sea,  and  are  not  troubled  with 
seasickness  as  older  people  are,  as  we  had  experience  in  many 
children  who  went  this  voyage.  My  Wiffe  indeed,  in  tossing 
weather,  was  something  ill  by  vomiting,  but  in  calme  weather 
she  recovered  agayne,  and  is  now  much  better  for  the  sea  sickness. 
And  for  my  owne  part,  whereas  I  have  for  divers  yeares  past  been 
very  sickly  and  ready  to  cast  up  whatsoever  I  have  eaten,  and  was 
very  sicke  at  London  and  Gravesend,  yet  from  the  tyme  I  came 
on  shipboard  to  this  day,  I  have  been  straungely  healthfull.  And 
now  I  can  digest  our  ship  diett  very  well,  which  I  could  not  when 
I  was  at  land.  And  indeed  in  this  regard  I  have  great  cause  to  give 
God  praise,  that  he  hath  made  my  coming  to  be  a  method  to  cure 
me  of  a  wonderful  weak  stomacke  and  continual  payne  of  melan- 
cholly  wynd  from  the  splene :  Also  divers  children  were  sicke  of 
the  small  pockes,  but  are  safely  recovered  agayne,  and  2  or  3 
passengers  towards  the  latter  end  of  the  voyage  fell  sicke  of  the 
scurvie,  but  coming  to  land  recovered  in  a  short  time." 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  67 

After  surviving  the  perils  and  discomforts  of  the  voy- 
age and  arriving  in  their  new  country  the  early  settle- 
ments were  so  frequently,  and  so  terribly,  visited  by 
outbreaks  of  sickness  that  we  find  contemporary  corre- 
spondence and  books  filled  with  interesting  matter  deal- 
ing with  facts  of  medical  interest.  These  sufferings  were 
attributable  largely  to  the  weakened  condition  in  which 
the  people  landed,  partly  to  the  difficulty  in  procuring 
suitable  and  sufficient  food,  partly  to  unwonted  climatic 
conditions,  and  lastly  to  overcrowding  and  other  un- 
sanitary conditions  in  the  first  dwelling-places  they 
erected. 

The  first  settlement  established  by  the  English  in  North 
America  was  that  of  Jamestown  in  Virginia.  The  land- 
ing was  made  April  26,  1607,  after  a  voyage  begun  De- 
cember 20,  1606.  These  colonists  landed  at  a  most 
favorable  season  of  the  year,  when  the  country  was  in 
the  first  flush  of  spring,  and  were  fairly  well  provided 
with  physical  necessaries  and  comforts  before  the  setting 
in  of  their  first  winter.  They  praised  the  healthfulness' 
of  the  country.  William  Strachey,  who  was  secretary 
and  recorder  of  the  colony,^  writes  in  praise  of  the 
healthfulness  of  the  climate : 

"  The  temperature  of  this  country  doth  well  agree  with  the 
English  constitucions,  being  sometymes  seasoned  in  the  same, 
which  hath  appeared  unto  us  by  this  that  albeyt,  by  many  occasions, 
ill-lodging  at  the  first  (the  poorer  on  the  bare  ground  and  the  best 
in  such  miserable  cottages  at  the  best,  as  through  which  the  fer- 
vent piercing  heat  of  the  sun,  which  there  (it  is  true)  is  the  first 
cause  creating  such  sommer  fevers  amongst  them,  found  never 
resistance)  hard  fare,  and  their  owne  judgments  and  saffeties  in- 
structing them  to  worke  hard  in  the  faint  tyme  of  sommer,  (the 
better  to  be  acommodated  and  fitted  for  the  wynter,)  they  have 
fallen  sick,  yet  have  they  recovered  agayne,  by  very  small  meanes, 

*  Hart's  American  History  told  by  Contemporarie.s,  vol.  i.  p.  202. 


68  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

without  helpe  of  fresh  diet,  or  comfort  of  wholesome  physique, 
there  being  at  the  first  but  few  physique  helpes,  or  skilful!  surgeons, 
who  knew  how  to  apply  the  right  medicine  in  a  new  country,  or  to 
search  the  quality  and  constitucion  of  the  patient,  and  his  distemper, 
or  that  knew  how  to  councell,  when  to  lett  blood,  or  not,  or  in 
necessity  to  use  a  launce  in  that  office  at  all." 

On  the  other  hand,  George  Percy,  a  brother  of  the 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  was  one  of  the  first  settlers 
at  Jamestown,  and  he  has  left  us  a  very  different  account 
of  the  way  things  went  in  Virginia  during  the  first 
summer  of  the  settlement.^ 

"  Our  men  were  destroyed  wth  cruel  diseases,  as  swellings, 
flixes,  burning  fevers,  and  by  wars,  and  some  departed  suddenly. 
But  for  the  most  part  they  died  of  mere  famine.  There  were 
never  Englishmen  left  in  a  foreign  country  in  such  misery  as  we 
were,  in  this  new  discovered  Virginia.  We  watched  every  three 
nights  lying  on  the  bare  cold  ground,  what  weather  soever  came ; 
warded  all  the  next  day  which  brought  our  men  to  be  most  feeble 
wretches.  Our  food  was  but  a  small  can  of  barley  sod  in  water  to  five 
men  a  day;  our  drink  cold  water  taken  out  of  the  river,  which 
was  at  flood  very  salt,  at  a  low  tide  full  of  slime  and  filth,  which 
was  the  destruction  of  many  of  our  men.  Thus  we  lived  for  the 
space  of  five  months  in  this  miserable  distress,  not  having  five 
able  men  to  man  our  bulwarks  upon  any  occasion.  If  it  had  not 
pleased  God  to  put  a  terror  in  the  savage's  hearts,  we  had  all 
perished  by  those  wild  and  cruel  pagans,  being  in  that  weak  estate 
as  we  were ;  our  men  night  and  day  groaning  in  every  corner  of 
the  fort  most  pitiful  to  hear.  If  there  were  any  conscience  in 
men,  it  would  make  their  hearts  bleed  to  hear  the  pitiful  murmur- 
ings  and  outcries  of  our  sick  men,  without  relief  every  night  and 
day  for  the  space  of  six  weeks ;  some  departing  out  of  the  world, 
manny  times  three  or  four  in  a  night,  in  the  morning  their  bodies 
trailled  out  of  their  cabins  like  dogs  to  be  buried." 

According  to  Purchas,  three  thousand  five  hundred  and 
seventy  emigrants  arrived  in  Virginia  during  the  years 
1 619,  1620,  and  1 62 1.     Before  these  arrived  there  were 

'  Tyler,  History  of  American  Literature,  vol.  i. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  69 

six  hundred  settlers  there,  so  that  the  total  number  of 
settlers  of  that  colony  up  to  1621  has  been  estimated  at 
four  thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy.  In  the  Indian 
war  of  1622  three  hundred  and  forty-nine  whites  were 
killed,  but  by  1624  the  total  number  of  the  settlers  was 
but  eighteen  hundred.  This  shows  a  very  heavy  rate  of 
mortality,  especially  when  it  is  considered  that  the  ma- 
jority of  the  colonists  were  adult  males. 

Among  the  first  events  of  interest  connected  with  the 
history  of  their  new  country  which  the  Puritans  learned 
on  landing  at  Plymouth  in  1620,  was  that  the  region  in 
which  they  found  themselves  had  recently  been  almost 
depopulated  of  its  native  inhabitants  by  a  dreadful  plague. 
Shortly  after  they  had  founded  their  settlement  an  Indian 
entered  it,  who  caused  them  much  astonishment  by  bid- 
ding them  "  welcome"  in  English.  This  Indian  was  the 
ever-to-be-remembered  Samoset,  who  was  of  such  great 
service  subsequently  as  interpreter  to  the  colony.  He  had 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  English  from  the  fishermen 
on  the  Maine  coast.  Bradford  ^  says  that  Samoset  in- 
formed the  Pilgrims  that  the  place  where  they  had  settled 
was  called  Patuxet,  "  and  that  about  four  years  ago  (in 
1617),  all  the  inhabitants  had  died  of  an  extraordinary 
plague,  and  there  is  neither  man,  woman,  nor  child  re- 
maining, as  indeed  we  have  found  none."  Daniel  Goo- 
kin,^  in  his  account  of  the  various  Indian  tribes  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, refers  to  the  terible  ravages  of  this  plague. 
Writing  of  the  tribe  known  as  the  Pawkunnawkutts,  he 
says, — 

*  A  Relation  or  Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Plantation  at 
Plymouth. 

°  Historical  Collections  of  the  Indians  of  New  England,  etc. 
Reprinted  in  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Collections,  first 
series,  vol.  i.  p.  148. 


70  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  This  people  were  a  potent  nation  in  former  times,  and  could 
raise  as  the  most  credible  and  ancient  Indians  affirm,  about  three 
thousand  men  ...  a  very  great  number  of  them  were  swept  away 
by  an  epidemical  and  unwonted  sickness,  An.  1612  and  1613,  .  .  . 
about  seven  or  eight  years  before  the  English  first  arrived  in  those 
parts  to  settle  the  colony  of  New  Plymouth.  Thereby  divine  provi- 
dence made  way  for  the  quiet  and  peaceable  settlement  of  the 
English  in  those  nations.  What  this  disease  was,  that  so  generally 
and  mortally  swept  away,  not  only  these  but  other  Indians,  their 
neighbors,  I  cannot  well  learn.  Doubtless  it  was  some  pestilential 
disease.  I  have  discoursed  with  some  old  Indians,  that  were  then 
youths ;  who  say,  that  the  bodies  all  over  were  exceeding  yellow, 
describing  it  by  a  yellow  garment  they  showed  me,  both  before  they 
died  and  afterwards." 

He  then  speaks  of  the  Massachusetts,  the  next  great 
people  to  the  northward  of  the  Pawkunnawkutts.  They 
had  at  one  time  been  able  to  muster  three  thousand  fight- 
ing men,  but  the  plague  had  fallen  on  them  also,  and 
reduced  their  number  to  three  hundred  fighting  men. 
Of  the  Pawtuckets, — 

"  They  were  also  a  considerable  people  heretofore,  about  three 
thousand  men,  .  .  .  But  they  also  were  almost  totally  destroyed 
by  the  great  sickness  before  mentioned ;  so  that  at  this  day  they 
are  not  above  two-hundred  and  fifty  men,  besides  women  and 
children." 

It  will  be  observed  that  Gookin  gives  the  date  of  the 
epidemic  as  161 2- 13,  but  he  undoubtedly  has  reference 
to  the  same  epidemic  which  we  know  to  have  occurred 
in  1 616-17.  We  know  as  little  to-day  concerning  the 
real  nature  of  this  sickness  as  Gookin  did  in  his  time. 
By  some  it  has  been  supposed  to  have  been  yellow  fever, 
because  of  the  yellow  discoloration  of  the  skin,  but  this 
supposition  cannot  be  correct,  as  it  prevailed  in  the  midst 
of  a  severe  winter,  and  it  was  not  apparently  capable  of 
contagion  to  the  English  who  were  exposed  to  it.  There 
is  some  interesting  testimony  on  this  point  by  Sir  Ferdi- 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  71 

nando  Gorges.^  He  speaks  of  the  Indians  being  "  sore 
afflicted  with  the  plague,  so  that  the  country  was  in  a 
manner  left  void  of  inhabitants.  Notwithstanding  Vines 
and  the  rest  with  him  that  lay  in  the  cabins  with  those 
people  that  died,  some  more,  some  less  mightily,  (blessed 
be  God  for  it)  not  one  of  them  ever  felt  their  heads  to 
ache  while  they  stayed  there."  Some  have  thought  that 
this  plague  must  have  been  an  outbreak  of  smallpox,  but 
the  proof  seems  conclusive  that  it  was  not.  In  the  first 
place,  Vines  and  his  men  could  hardly  have  slept  in  the 
cabins  of  those  who  were  sick  and  yet  all  of  them  escape 
the  contagion;  secondly,  in  the  year  1633-34  smallpox 
swept  off  both  colonists  and  Indians  in  large  numbers, 
and  Governor  Bradford  says  the  Indians  feared  it  much 
more  than  "  the  plague;"  and,  thirdly,  if  the  disease  had 
been  smallpox  surely  some  of  the  Englishmen  who  saw 
the  sick  Indians  would  have  recognized  it  as  such,  for 
smallpox  was  a  disease  with  which  at  that  time  all  Eng- 
glishmen  were  sadly  familiar,  it  being  constantly  present 
in  their  communities. 

S.  A.  Green '  has  in  an  appendix  printed  the  follow- 
ing extract  from  a  letter  which,  written  by  so  eminent  a 
student  of  Indian  lore,  would  seem  cjuite  conclusive.  It 
was  addressed  to  Dr.  Green  after  Mr.  Trumbull  had  read 
the  former's  address  before  the  Massachusetts  Medical 
Society  in  1881  : 

"  I  see  that  you  incline  to  the  belief  that  the  '  prodigious  pesti- 
lence' which  made  room  for  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth,  was  the 
smallpox,  and  not  the  yellow-fever.  I  have  not  a  copy  of  Winslow's 
'  Good  Newes'  within  reach  this  evening,  and  I  do  not  recollect  his 
statement  that  you  cite,  that  the  same  disease  prevailed  as  late  as 

"  Brief    Narration,    etc.,    Massachusetts    Historical    Society    Col- 
lections, third  series,  vol.  vi. 
'  Centennial  Address. 


^2  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

November,  1622.  This  statement  may  be  conclusive  against  yellow- 
fever.  Roger  Williams,  in  '  Key,'  ch.  xxxi.  shows,  however,  that 
the  Indians  had  distinct  names  for  the  '  great  plague'  and  '  the 
(small)  pox.'  I  have  indicated,  in  my  edition  of  the  'Key,'  p.  211, 
the  composition  of  the  name  for  the  '  plague,'  which  agrees  exactly 
with  the  description  of  it  that  the  Indians  gave  to  Gookin.  '  Wesau- 
ashaui,'  which  Williams  translates,  '  He  hath  the  plague,'  literally 
signifies  '  he  is  hadly  yellow,'  and  the  name  for  the  disease  itself, 
wesauashauonck,  is  '  a  bad  yellowing,'  or,  '  being  badly  yellow.'  I 
am  not  quite  certain  of  the  signification  of  the  Indian  name  for  the 
smallpox,  Mamaskishauonck,  but  this  name  is  still  in  use — under 
various  dialectic  variations — by  several,  perhaps  by  all  Algonkin 
tribes.  For  the  Narraganset  Mamaskishaui,  '  he  has  the  smallpox,' 
the  Chippeways  have  Omamakisi,  and  for  the  name  of  the  disease, 
Mamakisi-wiu.  (The  toad,  by  the  way,  is  named  by  the  Chippe- 
ways, Omakiki,  probably  from  his  warty  skin.)  In  the  western 
Cree,  the  verb  becomes  omiki-u,  and  the  noun,  omikiwiu, — which  is 
used  as  a  name  for  Psora,  as  well  as  for  the  small-pox,  and  also 
enters  into  the  composition  of  leprosy,  and  is  nearly  related  to  the 
names  for  measles  and  scarlatina.  In  the  western  dialects,  the 
derivation  of  these  names  seems  plainly  enough  to  be  from  a  root 
denoting  redness;  and  if  so,  the  Narragansett  (and  Massachusetts) 
name  for  the  small-pox  must  have  been  derived  from  that  of  some 
earlier-known  disease,  which  signifies  '  redness  of  skin'  or  '  eruption' 
(Psora?),  by  intensive  reduplication  and  the  suffix  denoting  bad- 
ness,— so  as  to  give  the  meaning  of  a  '  very  great  bad  redness'  or 
cutaneous  eruption. 

"  As  I  have  said,  Roger  Williams  shows  that  the  small-pox  and 
'  the  great  plague,'  were  distinguished  by  the  Indians  of  New  Eng- 
land by  different  names.  They  told  him,  1637-43,  of  '  the  last  pox' 
and  'the  great  (literally  the  last)  plague,'  and  diagnosed  the  two 
as  well  as  they  could  by  single  words ;  '  the  late  great  eruption' 
and  '  the  late  great  yellowing,  or  yellowness.'  Eliot  evidently 
identified  the  '  yellowing'  with  a  '  fever,' — for  while  he  uses  wesau- 
shaonk  for  'pestilence,'  in  Psalm  xci.  3,  6,  and  Luke  xxi.  11,  and  for 
'plague'  (rarely)  as  in  Luke  vii.  21,  he  also  uses  the  verb  vesoshau, 
for  *  she  was  sick  of  a  fever,'  in  Matthew  viii.  14,  Mark  i.  30. 
"  Very  truly  yours 

"J.  H.  Trumbull." 

Winterbotham  ^   says  the  diseases  most  prevalent  in 
New  England  were  "  Alvine  fluxes,  St.  Anthony's  fire, 

*  History  of  America. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  73 

asthma,  atrophy,  catarrh,  coHc,  inflammatory,  slow,  ner- 
vous, and  mixed  fevers,  puhnonary  consumption,  quinzy, 
and  rheumatism." 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers  landed  at  Plymouth  in  the  latter 
part  of  December,  1620.  Three  months  later,  out  of  one 
hundred  who  had  landed  but  fifty  survived.  Bradford  ^ 
attributed  this  mortality  to  "  being  Infected  with  ye 
Scurvie  and  other  diseases,  which  this  long  vioage  &  their 
Inacomodate  condition  had  brought  upon  them;  so  as 
there  dyed  some  times  2  or  3  of  a  day,  in  ye  foresaid 
time." 

C.  F.  Adams  ^^  writes  as  follows  of  the  unsanitary  con- 
ditions which  prevailed  at  Charlestown,  where  the  first 
emigrants  who  came  to  Boston  were  settled  before  going 
to  the  latter  place : 

"  A  state  of  things  better  calculated  to  breed  sickness  could  not 
well  have  existed.  Several  hundred  men,  women  and  children  were 
crowded  together  in  a  narrow  space,  almost  without  shelter,  and 
with  unaccustomed  and  improper  food.  .  .  .  When  they  arrived  they 
had  been  living  for  months  on  shipboard,  fed  on  that  salt  meat  which 
was  then  the  only  sea  fare.  Their  systems  had  become  reduced  and 
the  scurvy  had  broken  out.  They  were  in  no  condition  to  bear 
exposure.  Then,  landed  suddenly  in  midsummer,  they  had  their 
first  experience  of  a  climate  quite  different  from  that  which  they 
had  known  before, — a  climate  of  excessive  heat  and  sudden  change. 
Their  clothing  was  not  adapted  to  it.  As  a  matter  of  course  dysen- 
tery and  all  sorts  of  bowel  complaints  began  to  appear.  These  they 
did  not  know  how  to  treat,  and  they  made  things  worse  by  the 
salt  food  to  which  they  doubtless  recurred  when  they  found  that 
an  improper  use  of  the  berries  and  natural  fruits  of  the  country 
caused  the  disorders  under  which  they  suffered.  Their  camp,  too, 
could  not  have  been  properly  policed.  ...  By  degrees  the  hill  at 
Charlestown,  covered  with  decaying  vegetable  and  animal  matter, 
became  unfit  for  human  habitation ;    the  air  reeked  with  foul  odors." 

Dr.  Fuller  came  over  from  Plymouth  to  try  and  help 
them    in    their    plight,    but   he    wrote   back    in    despair, 

°  History  of  the  Plymouth  Plantation. 
"*  Three  Episodes  of  Massachusetts  History,  vol.   i.  p.  235. 


74  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  Many  are  sick,  and  many  are  dead,  the  Lord  in  mercy 
look  upon  them.  ...  I  here  but  lose  time  and  long  to 
be  home."  Finally,  after  every  family  in  the  settlement 
had  lost  at  least  one  of  its  members,  the  emigrants  moved 
over  to  the  healthy  location  on  which  now  stands  Boston. 
The  Quakers  and  Swedes,  who  composed  the  bulk  of 
the  settlers  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  seem  to 
have  had  a  much  more  comfortable  time  in  making  their 
first  settlements  than  did  the  emigrants  who  had  settled 
New  England  or  Virginia.  There  were  many  good  rea- 
sons for  this.  The  settlements  were  not  made  until  many 
years  after  those  farther  north  and  south,  and  the  colo- 
nists profited  greatly  by  the  experiences  of  those  who 
had  gone  before.  The  expeditions  were  sent  out  in 
a  much  more  deliberate  manner;  and  hence  the  ships 
afforded  better  accommodations  and  carried  better  assort- 
ments of  the  articles  needed  by  the  settlers  than  did 
those  of  the  previous  years.  The  emigrants,  or  at  least 
those  who  sent  them  out,  were,  as  a  rule,  men  of  more 
worldly  substance  than  the  New  England  settlers.  Not 
that  there  were  not  many  wealthy  colonists  in  New  Eng- 
land, such  as  John  Winthrop  and  Isaac  Johnson,  but 
there  was  a  more  even  distribution  of  wealth  among  the 
Swedes  and  Quakers,  very  few  of  whom,  except  the  ar- 
ticled servants,  were  very  poor  men,  though  few  of  them 
were  very  rich.  Of  course,  also,  the  climate  was  not  so 
rigorous  as  that  of  Massachusetts. 

Smallpox. 

Let  us  begin  our  consideration  of  the  well-defined  epi- 
demics which  devastated  the  colonies  by  the  consideration 
of  the  disease  which  was  so  awful  an  inmate  of  almost  all 
the  homes  of  the  period  at  one  time  or  another,  but  which 
science  has  now  practically  shorn  of  its  terrors. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  75 

The  very  first  medical  publication  in  North  America 
was  a  "  Brief  Rule  to  guide  the  Common  People  of  New- 
England.  How  to  order  themselves  and  theirs  in  the 
Small  Pocks,  or  Measels,"  by  Thomas  Thacher,  a  clergy- 
man, who  also  practised  medicine,  in  the  town  of  Boston. 
He  published  it  in  1677. 

The  early  settlers  of  New  England  seemed  to  think 
that,  though  a  great  hardship  that  they  themselves  should 
suffer  from  smallpox,  nevertheless  the  decimation  of  the 
Indian  tribes  by  it  was  a  providential  interposition  of 
God  on  behalf  of  the  infant  colonies. 

Thus  Love  ^^  quotes  Amos  Adams's  fast-day  sermon 
of  April  16,  1769,  in  which  he  says,  "  and  lest  after  all, 
the  savages  should  prove  too  hard  for  them,  in  1633  the 
small  pox  m.ade  dreadful  havock  among  them  and  swept 
away  almost  whole  plantations  of  Indians." 

In  1663  the  Dutch  colony  of  New  Netherlands  was 
visited  by  floods  and  an  earthquake  and  by  a  most  malig- 
nant epidemic  of  smallpox,  which  was  of  a  virulent  char- 
acter and  spread  through  the  colony  with  great  rapidity, 
so  that  on  April  4  they  held  a  fast-day  for  deliverance 
from  all  these  evils. 

In  1666  smallpox  prevailed  throughout  New  England, 
having  been  brought  over  from  England,  which  at  that 
time  was  being  swept  by  an  epidemic  of  the  disease. 

In  1677  ^^^  i6y8  smallpox  was  very  prevalent,  and 
fast-days  were  held  to  avert  its  ravages. 

The  month  of  February,  1689-90,  found  the  people 
of  Massachusetts  agitated  about  the  prevalence  of  the 
smallpox  and  a  descent  of  the  French  and  Indians  on 
Schenectady.  These  were  the  main  causes  mentioned 
in  the  proclamation  for  a  fast  on  March  6  of  that  year. 

"  Fast  and  Thanksgiving  Days  in  New  England. 


ye  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

The  smallpox,  however,  increased  in  virulence,  and 
subsequently,  on  July  lo,  another  public  fast  was  held 
by  order  of  the  General  Court  "  in  regard  of  ye  troubls 
yt  weer  upon  us  and  ye  wars  with  French  &  Indians 
and  ye  sickness  yt  weer  amongst  us  as  ye  feavor  & 
smallpox." 

On  February  23,  1692-93,  the  colonists  held  a  thanks- 
giving day  for  the  cessation  of  this  scourge.^ ^ 

In  1702  smallpox  raged  in  Boston  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  General  Court  assembled  at  Cambridge.  It  was 
in  many  cases  accompanied  by  a  "  scarlet  eruption," 
which  rendered  its  diagnosis  from  scarlet  fever  very 
difficult. 

But  science  was  soon  to  deprive  this  terrible  enemy  of 
much  of  its  virulence.  One  of  those  great  steps  was 
to  be  taken  which  have  so  often  marked  the  path  of 
science  in  its  battle  with  disease. 

To  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cotton  Mather,  of  Boston,  is  to  be 
ascribed  the  first  suggestion  in  this  country  of  the  use 
of  inoculation  to  combat  the  ravages  of  smallpox. 

In  April,  1721,  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague  re- 
turning to  England  from  Turkey  introduced  to  her 
countrymen  the  practice  of  inoculation  for  smallpox, 
which  had  long  prevailed  among  the  Turks. 

In  1 71 7  Dr.  Woodward  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Society  a  description  of  the  practice  of  inoculation  among 
the  Turks,  written  by  an  Italian  named  Timoni,  and  in 
the  same  volume.  No.  xxix.,  of  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society,"  there  appeared  another 
account  of  the  Turkish  method  by  Dr.  Pylarini. 

These  communications  were  read  by  the  Rev.  Cotton 
Mather,  of  Boston.    At  that  time  smallpox  was  epidemic 

^  Love,  loc.  cit. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  yy 

in  that  city,  after  it  had  undergone  a  freedom  from  the 
scourge  for  nineteen  years.  The  disease  had  been  brought 
into  the  city  by  a  ship  from  the  Tortugas.  He  endeavored 
to  interest  a  number  of  different  medical  men  in  what  he 
had  read  about  inoculation  and  to  induce  them  to  give 
the  method  a  trial.  They  all  ridiculed  the  idea  and 
treated  the  proposition  with  scorn.  When,  however,  he 
communicated  his  information  to  his  warm  personal 
friend,  Dr.  Zabdiel  Boylston,  the  latter  at  once  saw  the 
value  of  the  remedy  and  entered  eagerly  into  the  scheme 
to  stamp  out  the  plague.  Dr.  Boylston  was  one  of  the 
best-known  medical  men  in  Boston.  He  was  not  only 
distinguished  as  a  medical  man  but  had  acquired  no  mean 
reputation  as  a  zoologist  and  botanist,  and  was  univer- 
sally respected  and  loved  because  of  his  moral  character 
and  benevolent  disposition. 

June  2^,  1 72 1,  only  two  months  later  than  the  intro- 
duction of  the  practice  into  England,  Dr.  Boylston  in- 
oculated his  only  son,  a  boy  of  thirteen,  and  two  negro 
servants.     The  attempts  proved  completely  successful. 

Hutchinson  ^^  says, — 

"  In  the  year  1721,  and  first  part  of  1722,  Dr.  Boylston  inoculated 
247  persons,  and  39  were  inoculated  by  other  persons  in  Boston  and 
its  vicinity.  Of  this  number  only  6  died,  and  several  of  those  were 
supposed  to  have  taken  the  infection  before  inoculation.  In  the 
same  period  5,759  took  the  disease  the  natural  way,  of  whom  844 
died,  and  many  of  those  who  recovered  were  left  with  broken  con- 
stitutions and  disfigured  countenances." 

Of  the  six  deaths  the  following  explanation  was 
offered :  ^'' 

"  History  of  Massachusetts. 

"  Crookshank,  History  of  Vaccination.  A  quotation  from  Boyl- 
ston, An  Historical  Account  of  the  Small  Pox  inoculated  in  New 
England  upon  all  sorts  of  Persons,  Whites,  Blacks,  and  of  all  Ages 
and  Constitutions,  1726. 


78  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

"  And  as  to  those  who  died  under  Inoculation,  I  would  observe 
that  Mrs.  Doxwell,  we  have  great  reason  to  believe  was  infected 
before.  Mr.  White  thro'  splenetic  delusions,  died  rather  from 
abstinence  than  the  Small  Pox.  Mrs.  Scarborough  and  the  Indian 
girl  died  of  accidents  by  taking  cold.  Mrs.  Wells  and  Searle  were 
persons  worn  out  with  Age  and  Disease,  and  very  likely  these  two 
were  infected  before." 

Crookshank,  however,  thinks  the  deaths  were  attrib- 
utable to  Boylston's  method  of  performing  the  operation, 
which  was  as  follows : 

"  Take  your  Medicine  or  Pus  from  the  ripe  pustules  of  the  Small 
Pox  of  the  distinct  kind,  either  from  those  in  the  natural  way,  or 
from  the  inoculated  sort,  provided  the  person  be  otherwise  healthy 
and  the  matter  good.  My  way  of  taking  it  is  thus :  Take  a  fine 
cut,  sharp  toothpick  (which  will  not  put  the  person  in  any  fear,  as  a 
Lancet  will  do  many),  and  open  the  Pock  on  one  side,  and  press 
the  Boil,  and  scoop  the  matter  on  your  quill,  and  so  on." 

But  the  persecution  which  befell  Mather  and  Boylston 
and  those  who  supported  inoculation  is  almost  incredible. 
Almost  every  medical  man  of  the  city  joined  in  repro- 
bating the  practice  and  vilifying  the  personal  character 
of  those  who  had  introduced  it.  The  clergy  and  the 
newspapers  took  up  the  hue-and-cry,  and  finally  the 
Legislature  and  the  courts  took  a  hand  in  the  effort  to 
suppress  a  measure  of  such  incalculable  value  to  the  com- 
munity. A  fast  and  furious  pamphlet  war  was  precipi- 
tated, and  the  current  literature  teemed  with  articles  for 
and  against  the  practice.  Many  pious,  respectable  per- 
sonages were  of  the  opinion  that  should  any  one  of  his 
patients  die  the  doctor  should  be  hung  for  murder. 

Crookshank  quotes  the  following  manifesto  as  giving 
a  severe  blow  to  the  practice  of  inoculation : 

"  At  a  meeting  by  Public  Authority  in  the  Town-house  of  Boston 
before  his  Majesty's  Justices  of  the  Peace  and  the  Select-Men;  the 
Practitioners  of  Physick  and  Surgery  being  called  before  them  con- 
cerning Inoculation,  agreed  to  the  following  conclusion : — 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  79 

"  A  resolve  upon  a  Debate  held  by  the  Physicians  of  Boston  con- 
cerning Inoculating  the  Small  Pox,  on  the  twenty  first  day  of  July, 
1721.  It  appears  by  numerous  Instances,  That  it  has  prov'd  the 
Death  of  many  Persons  soon  after  the  Operation,  and  brought  Dis- 
tempers upon  many  others,  which  have  in  the  end  prov'd  fatal  to  them. 
That  the  natural  tendency  of  infusing  such  malignant  Filth  in  the 
Mass  of  Blood,  is  to  corrupt  and  putrify  it,  and  if  there  be  not 
a  sufficient  Discharge  of  the  Malignity  by  the  Place  of  Incision  or 
elsewhere,  it  lays  a  Foundation  for  many  dangerous  Diseases. 

"  That  the  Operation  tends  to  spread  and  continue  the  Infection 
in  a  Place  longer  than  it  might  otherwise  be. 

"  That  the  continuing  the  Operation  among  us  is  likely  to  prove 
of  most  dangerous  Consequence. 

"  By  the  Select-Men  of  the  Town  of  Boston,  July  22nd. 

"  The  number  of  Persons,  Men,  Women,  and  Children,  that 
have  died  of  the  Small  Pox  at  Boston,  from  the  middle  of  April 
last  (being  brought  here  then  by  the  Saltertuda's  Fleet)  to  the  23rd 
of  this  instant  July  (being  the  hottest  and  the  worst  Season  of  the 
Year  to  have  any  Distemper  in),  are  viz.,  2  Men  Strangers,  3  Men, 
3  Young  Men,  2  Women,  4  Children,  i  Negro  Man,  i  Negro 
Woman,  and  i  Indian  Woman,  17  in  all;  of  those  that  have  had  it, 
some  are  well  recovered,  and  others  in  a  hopeful  and  fair  Way  of 
Recovery."  " 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Walter,  a  minister  in  Roxbnry,  and 
nephew  of  the  Rev.  Cotton  Mather,  had  been  inoculated 
at  Dr.  Mather's  house  in  Boston.  One  morning  at  about 
three  o'clock  a  bomb  was  thrown  into  the  chamber  of 
his  uncle's  house,  in  which  he  was  lodged,  but  the  fuse 
broke  off  as  it  was  hurled  through  the  window.  Attached 
to  the  shell  was  found  a  scurrilous  message. 

Dr.  Boylston  was  assaulted  in  the  streets,  attempts 
were  made  to  burn  his  house,  and  once  a  bomb  was 
thrown  into  the  parlor  in  which  his  wife  was  sitting. 

The  House  of  Representatives  passed  a  bill  prohibit- 
ing inoculation  under  severe  penalties,  but  it  never  be- 
came a  law.  Many  clergymen  denounced  the  practice 
from  their  pulpits  as  immoral. 

"  Hutchinson's  History  of  Massachusetts. 


8o  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

The  New  England  Courant,  published  by  James  Frank- 
lin with  his  brother  Benjamin,  took  a  very  active  part  in 
the  opposition  to  inoculation.  Its  columns  fairly  teemed 
vv^ith  denunciatory  utterances. 

Subsequently  Benjamin  Franklin  became  one  of  the 
strongest  advocates  of  inoculation. 

In  his  Autobiography  he  relates  that  in  1736  he  lost 
a  son,  "A  fine  boy  of  four  years  old,  by  the  smallpox, 
taken  in  the  common  way.  I  long  regretted  him,  and 
still  regret  that  I  had  not  given  it  to  him  by  inoculation. 
This  I  mention  for  the  sake  of  parents  who  omit  that 
operation,  on  the  supposition  that  they  should  never  for- 
give themselves,  if  a  child  died  under  it,  my  example 
showing  that  the  regret  may  be  the  same  either  way, 
and  therefore  that  the  safer  should  be  chosen." 

When  in  London  in  1759  he  wrote  for  Dr.  William 
Heberdeen,  the  great  physician  of  that  city,  an  account 
of  his  observations  on  the  results  of  inoculation  upon 
smallpox  in  America,  which  is  of  such  interest  and  pre- 
sents such  a  common-sense  epitome  of  the  status  of  the 
practice  of  inoculation  at  that  time  that  I  reprint  it  in 
its  entirety  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.^^ 

The  most  prominent  among  Dr.  Boylston's  assailants 
was  Dr.  William  Douglas,  a  very  eminent  Scotch  physi- 
cian located  in  Boston.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  man 
of  much  learning,  but  possessed  of  great  conceit  in  his 
own  abilities  and  of  a  most  outrageous  temper,  and,  from 
the  part  he  took  in  this  contest,  not  over-scrupulous  in 
the  weapons  he  employed  against  his  adversaries.  He 
was  assisted  in  his  persecution  of  Dr.  Boylston  by  Dr. 
Lawrence  Dalhonde,  a  Frenchman,  who  had  a  consider- 
able practice  in  the  city.      Thacher  prints  a  deposition 

'"Note  A  at  end  of  chapter. 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  8i 

made  by  Dalhonde  before  two  magistrates  of  Boston, 
which  I  reprint  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  as  showing 
the  maHcious  mendacity  of  Dr.  Boylston's  opponents.^'^ 

It  is  pleasant  to  record,  however,  that  Dr.  Boylston's 
meritorious  efforts  to  benefit  humanity  met  with  their 
just  reward.  The  results  obtained  by  inoculation  were 
such  as  to  convince  most,  even  of  its  bitterest  opponents, 
of  the  utility  of  the  practice,  and  Dr.  Boylston  accord- 
ingly became  as  much  belauded  as  formerly  his  char- 
acter and  motives  had  been  besmirched.  Sir  Hans  Sloane, 
the  distinguished  English  scientist,  extended  the  doctor 
an  invitation  to  visit  him  in  London,  which  he  accepted. 
After  his  arrival  in  that  city  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Society,  the  first  American,  Thacher  believes, 
who  ever  received  that  honor.  He  published  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Royal  Society  an  account  of  his  method  of 
inoculation,  which  was  afterv/ards  republished  in  Boston. 
According  to  Woodville,^^  Boylston  was  the  first  to  dis- 
cover that  the  incubation  period  of  inoculation  was  shorter 
than  that  of  smallpox. 

Inoculation  for  smallpox  was  apparently  confined 
solely  to  Boston  and  its  immediate  vicinity  for  some  years 
after  the  first  use  of  it.  In  1730  smallpox  was  epidemic 
in  Philadelphia,  and  Watson  ^^  quotes  from  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Gazette  of  March  4,  1730,  the  following  interest- 
ing item : 

"  The  practice  of  inoculation  for  the  smallpox  begins  to  grow 
among  us.  J.  Growden,  Esq.,  the  first  patient  of  note,  is  now  upon 
recovery,  having  had  none  but  the  most  favorable  symptoms  during 
the  whole  course  of  the  distemper,  which  is  mentioned  to  show  how 
groundless  all  those  reports  are  that  have  been  spread  through  the 
Province  to  the  contrary." 

"  Sec  Note  B  at  end  of  chapter. 
"  Crookshank,  loc.  cit. 
"  Annals  of  Philadelphia. 
6 


82  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Previous  to  this  time  many  attempts  had  been  made 
to  prejudice  the  public  mind  against  the  practice.  The 
Weekly  Mercury  for  the  ist  of  January,  1722,  reprinted 
a  sermon  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Masley,  who,  according  to 
Watson,  "  preached  and  published  against  the  inoculation 
of  the  smallpox,  which  he  calls  '  an  unjustifiable  act,  an 
infliction  of  an  evil,  and  a  distrust  of  God's  overruling 
care,  to  procure  us  a  possible  future  good.'  " 

Norris  ^"  mentions  Franklin's  conversion  to  a  belief 
in  the  utility  of  inoculation,  and  quotes  from  his  news- 
paper : 

"  The  smallpox  has  quite  left  the  city,  the  number  of  those  that 
died  here  of  that  distemper  is  exactly  288,  and  no  more;  sixty- four 
of  the  number  were  negroes ;  if  these  may  be  valued  one  with 
another  at  £30  per  head,  the  loss  to  the  city  in  that  article  is  near 
i2,000." 

Norris  mentions  that  during  the  epidemic  which  pre- 
vailed in  Philadelphia  in  1736  and  1737  the  opposition 
to  inoculation  was  still  very  considerable,  as  but  one 
hundred  and  twenty-nine  persons  were  inoculated.  Of 
this  number  but  one,  an  infant,  died. 

In  1738  smallpox  was  introduced  into  South  Carolina 
by  an  African  slave-ship,  and  Mr.  Mowbray,  a  surgeon, 
combated  the  outbreak  by  inoculation. 

In  1764,  when  smallpox  was  again  epidemic  in  Boston, 
three  thousand  persons  were  successfully  inoculated,  the 
success  of  the  inoculations  being  attributed  to  a  prepara- 
tory course  of  treatment  with  mercurials  and  antimony, 
undergone  by  the  patient  before  the  operation. 

This  preparatory  treatment  was  as  follows :  ^^ 

"  The  night  before  you  inoculate,  give  a  few  grains  of  calomel 
well   levigated   with   a   like   quantity   of   diaphoretic   antimony   un- 

■°  Early   History   of   Medicine   in   Philadelphia. 
"^  Toner,  Annals  of  Medical  Progress. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  83 

washed,  proportioning  the  quantity  of  calomel  to  the  constitution 
of  your  patient;  from  four  grains  to  ten  for  a  grown  person,  and 
from  one  to  three  for  a  child,  to  be  made  up  into  a  bolus  or  simple 
pill  with  a  little  conserve  of  roses  or  any  common  syrup.  The  next 
morning  give  a  purge  of  the  pulvis  ^ornachine,  made  with  equal 
parts  of  diaphoretic  antimony,  scammony  and  cream  of  tartar. 
Repeat  the  bolus  or  pill  three  times,  that  is,  once  every  other  night 
after  inoculation;  and  on  the  fifth  day  give  a  dose  of  Boerhaave's 
golden  sulphur  of  antimony;  about  four  grains  of  it  for  a  grown 
person,  with  two  or  three  grains  of  calomel  made  into  a  small  pill 
will  operate  as  a  vomit  and  purge  at  the  same  time.  In  the  inter- 
mediate days,  give  two  or  three  papers  of  the  following  powders ; 
diaphoretic  antimony,  ten  grains ;  sal.  prunel.  six  grains ;  calomel, 
one  grain,  mixed  together  (for  a  grown  person)  and  one  fourth  part 
of  a  paper  for  a  child.  These  powders  are  to  be  continued  until 
the  variolus  or  small-pox  is  over;  and  while  the  fever  is  high,  let 
your  patient  drink  a  cup  of  whey  two  or  three  times  a  day;  the 
whey  to  be  made  of  cream,  of  tartar  instead  of  rennet,  and  those  that 
are  of  full  habit  should  be  blooded  once  or  twice  within  the  first 
eight  days,  and  must  abstain  from  all  spirituous  liquors,  and  from 
meat  of  all  kinds,  broth,  salt  and  butter." 

The  opposition  to  inoculation  was  very  vehement  in 
New  York,  and  on  June  6,  1747,  Governor  Clinton  issued 
a  proclamation  "  strictly  prohibiting  and  forbidding  all 
and  every  of  the  Doctors,  Physicians,  Surgeons,  and 
Practitioners  of  Physick,  and  all  and  every  other  person 
within  this  Province,  to  inoculate  for  the  small  pox  any 
person  or  persons  within  the  City  and  County  of  New 
York,  on  pain  of  being  prosecuted  to  the  utmost  rigour 
of  the  law." 

We  find  the  custom  of  inoculation  progressively  gained 
ground  as  years  passed  on,  each  succeeding  outbreak  of 
smallpox  in  a  community  serving  to  demonstrate  the 
immunity  conferred  on  those  who  had  been  inoculated. 

It  became  customary  for  doctors  to  take  up  the  prac- 
tice of  inoculation  as  a  special  line  of  work,  and  many 
practitioners  fitted  up  private  houses  as  hospitals  in  which 
their  patients  could  be  kept  whilst  undergoing  the  pro- 


84  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

cess,  and  frequently  a  number  of  friends,  or  the  mem- 
bers of  a  family,  would  all  retire  to  the  seclusion  of  an 
inoculating  house  at  the  same  time,  in  order  that  they 
might  enjoy  one  another's  society  during  their  period  of 
seclusion.  Alice  Morse  Earle  ^^  hints  that  many  ro- 
mances and  love-affairs  arose  from  the  propinquity  thus 
brought  about,  although,  as  she  says,  the  circumstances 
were  not  prepossessing. 

In  the  very  entertaining  "  Life  of  Mercy  Warren," 
by  Alice  Brown,  there  are  a  number  of  quotations  from 
letters  of  the  time  on  this  subject.  Hannah  Winthrop, 
writing  to  Mercy  Warren  in  1776,  says, — 

"The  reigning  subject  is  the  Small  Pox.  Boston  has  given  up  its 
Fears  of  an  invasion  &  is  busily  employed  in  Communicating  the 
Infection.  Straw  Beds  &  Cribs  are  daily  Carted  into  the  Town. 
That  ever  prevailing  Passion  of  following  the  Fashion  is  as  pre- 
dominant at  this  time  as  ever.  Men  Women  and  Children  eagerly 
crowding  to  inoculate  is  I  think  as  modish  as  running  away  from 
the  Troops  of  a  barbarous  George  was  the  last  year." 

James  Warren  ^^  writes  to  John  Adams  from  Boston, 
July  17,  1776,  as  follows: 

"  My  Dear  Sir, — When  you  are  Informed  that  in  the  variety  of 
changes  that  have  taken  place  in  this  Town  it  is  now  become  a  great 
Hospital  for  Inoculation  you  will  wonder  to  see  a  Letter  from  me 
dated  here,  but  so  it  is  that  the  rage  for  Inoculation  prevailing  here 
has  whirled  me  into  its  vortex  &  brought  me  with  my  other  self 
into  a  Crowd  of  Patients  with  which  this  Town  is  now  filUed.  Here 
is  a  collection  of  Good,  Bad,  and  Indifferent  of  all  Orders,  Sexes, 
Ages  and  Conditions,  your  good  Lady  &  Family  among  the  first 
She  will  give  you  (I  presume)  such  acct  of  herself  &c  as  makes 
it  unnecessary  for  me  to  say  more  on  that  head.  She  will  perhaps 
tell  you  that  this  is  the  reigning  subject  of  conversation,  &  that  even 
Politics  might  have  been  suspended  for  a  Time  if  your  Declaration 
of  Independence  &  some  other  political  movements  of  yours  had  not 
reached  us.    The  Declaration  came  on  Saturday  &  diffused  a  general 

^  Customs  and  Fashions  of  Old  New  England. 
"'  Brown,  Life  of  Mercy  Warren. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  85 

Joy.  Every  one  of  us  feels  more  Important  than  ever,  we  now 
congratulate  each  other  as  Freemen,  it  has  really  raised  our  Spirits 
to  a  Tone  Beneficial  to  mitigate  the  Malignancy  of  the  Small  Pox, 
&  what  is  of  more  consequence  seems  to  animate  and  inspire  every 
one  to  support  &  defend  the  Independence  he  feels." 

A  week  later,  July  24,  1776,  John  Adams  writes  to 
him, — 

"  This,  I  suppose,  will  find  you  at  Boston,  growing  well  of  the 
Small  Pox.  This  Distemper  is  the  King  of  Terrors  to  America 
this  year.  We  shall  suffer  as  much  by  it  as  we  did  last  Year  by  the 
Scarcity  of  Powder.  And  therefore  I  could  wish,  that  the  whole 
people  was  inoculated, — it  gives  me  ^reat  pleasure  to  learn  that  such 
numbers  have  removed  to  Boston,  for  the  sake  of  going  through  it, 
and  that  Inoculation  is  permitted  in  every  town. 

"I  rejoice  at  the  spread  of  the  Small  Pox  on  another  account, 
having  had  the  Small  Pox,  was  the  merit,  which  originally  recom- 
mended me  to  this  lofty  Station.  This  merit  is  now  likely  to  be 
common  enough  &  I  shall  stand  a  chance  to  be  relieved.  Let  some 
others  come  here  and  see  the  Beauties  and  Sublimities  of  a  Con- 
tinental Congress. — I  will  stay  no  longer. — A  Ride  to  Philadelphia, 
after  the  Small  Pox,  will  contribute  prodigiously  to  the  Restoration 
of  your  Health." 

On  August  17  he  writes  to  Warren  to  "  Congratulate 
you  and  your  other  self,  on  your  happy  Passage  through 
the  Small  Pox." 

Mrs.  Warren's  biographer  furnishes  us  with  what  she 
aptly  terms  the  "  domestic  atmosphere  of  the  question," 
as  set  forth  in  a  letter  from  Mercy  Warren  to  her  hus- 
band: 

"  Plymouth  25  Nov.  1776. 

"  The  letter  my  dear  Mr.  Warren  will  receive  to-morrow  I  almost 
wish  I  had  not  wrote.  I  own  I  was  a  little  too  Low  spirited,  but 
my  mind  was  oppressed  &  I  wanted  to  unbosom — it  is  this  evening 
no  less  free  from  care  though  I  feel  a  little  Differently.  I  was 
ready  to  think  the  task  of  Governing  &  Regulating  my  Children 
alone  almost  too  much — I  am  now  forced  to  strive  hard  to  keep  out 
the  Gloomy  apprehension  that  the  Burden  may  soon  be  lessoned  in 
some  painful  way.  I  have  been  this  afternoon  at  the  hospital  where 
I  left  your  three  youngest  sons.     Poor  Children — it  was  not  pos- 


86  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

sible  to  make  them  willing  to  give  up  the  project,  they  thought  it 
a  mighty  privilege  to  be  inoculated.  I  wish  nor  they  nor  we  may 
have  Reason  to  Regret  it  —  but  I  cannot  feel  quite  at  Ease  —  I 
Want  to  Discourage  Winslow  from  going  in  yet  am  afraid.  Their 
accomodations  are  not  altogether  to  my  liking  nor  are  their  Nurses 
sufficient  but  they  talk  of  getting  more  &  better  —  but  if  my  dear 
Children  should  be  very  ill  I  must  go  and  take  charge  of  them 
myself.  Inconvenient  as  it  is  —  48  persons  were  inoculated  this 
afternoon  &  as  many  will  offer  tomorrow.  I  think  it  is  too  many  for 
one  Class.  But  there  they  are  —  &  and  it  is  as  easy  for  the  Great 
phisition  of  soul  &  Body  to  Lend  Healing  Mercy  to  the  Multitude 
as  to  the  Few,  and  if  he  Brings  them  Back  in  safty  to  their  several 
Habitations  I  hope  we  shall  Adore  the  Hand  that  Heals,  and  give 
Glory  to  the  Rock  of  our  salvation." 

Fortunately,  the  children  all  passed  through  the  ordeal 
successfully. 

She  also  quotes  an  amusing  anecdote  which  John 
Adams  narrated  of  his  inoculation.     Adams  says, — 

"  After  having  been  ten  or  eleven  days  inoculated,  I  lay  lolling 
on  my  bed  in  Major  Cunningham's  chamber  under  the  tree  of  liberty, 
with  half  a  dozen  young  fellows  as  lazy  as  myself,  all  waiting  and 
wishing  for  symptoms  of  eruptions ;  all  of  a  sudden  appeared  at 
the  chamber  door  the  reverend  Doctor  (Mathew  Byles)  with  rosy 
face,  many-curled  wig,  and  pontifical  air  and  gait.  '  I  have  been 
thinking,'  says  he,  '  that  the  clergy  of  this  town  ought  upon  this 
occasion  to  adopt  the  benediction  of  the  Romish  clergy,  and  when 
we  enter  the  apartment  of  the  sick,  to  say  in  the  foreign  pronouncia- 
tion  Pax  tecum !'  These  words  are  pronounced  by  foreigners,  as 
the  Dr.  pronounced  them,  '  Pox  take  em.' " 

Mrs.  Earle  quotes  an  advertisement  from  the  Con- 
necticut Courant  of  November  30,  1767,  which  exhibits 
so  well  the  ordinary  method  of  running  these  inoculation 
hospitals  that  I  reproduce  it : 

"  Dr.  Uriah  Rogers,  Jr.  of  Norwalk  County  of  Fairfield  takes  this 
method  to  acquaint  the  publick  &  particularly  such  as  are  desirous 
of  taking  the  Small  Pox  by  way  of  Inoculation,  that  having  had 
Considerable  Experience  in  that  Branch  of  Practice  and  carried 
on  the  same  last  season  with  great  Success ;  he  has  lately  erected 
a  convenient  Hospital  for  that  purpose  just  within  the  Jurisdiction 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  87 

Line  of  the  Province  of  New  York  about  nine  miles  distant  from 
N.  Y.  Harbor,  where  he  intends  to  carry  said  Branch  of  Practice 
from  the  first  of  October  next  to  the  first  of  May  next.  And  that 
all  such  as  are  disposed  to  favour  him  with  their  custom  may  depend 
upon  being  well  provided  with  all  necessary  accommodations,  Pro- 
visions, &  the  best  Attendance  at  the  moderate  Expence  of  Four 
Pounds  Lawful  Money  to  Each  Patient.  That  after  the  first  Sett  or 
Class  he  purposes  to  give  no  Occasion  for  waiting  to  go  in  Particu- 
lar Setts  but  to  admit  Parties  singly,  just  as  it  suits  them.  As  he  has 
another  Good  House  provided  near  said  Hospital,  where  his  family 
are  to  live,  and  where  all  that  come  after  the  first  Sett  that  go  into  the 
Hospital  are  to  remain  with  his  Family  until  they  are  sufficiently 
Prepared  &  Inoculated  &  Until  it  is  apparent  that  they  have  taken 
the  infection." 

In  the  year  1764  there  were  two  inoculating  hospitals 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Boston  which  were 
held  in  particularly  high  repute,  one  at  Point  Shirley, 
the  other  at  Castle  William,  in  the  harbor.  The  hospital 
at  Point  Shirley  was  conducted  by  Dr.  William  Barnett 
from  New  Jersey.  It  was  established  by  the  Governor 
and  Council  of  Massachusetts.  Green  ^^  quotes  a  notice 
in  The  Boston  Post-Boy  &  Advertiser  of  March  19, 
1764,  to  wit: 

"  Those  Physicians  of  the  Town  of  Boston  who  are  engaged  in 
carrying  on  the  inoculating  Hospital  at  Point-Shirley,  being  pre- 
vented giving  their  constant  Attendance  there  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  Small-Pox  in  Town,  hereby  notify  the  Public,  that 
they  are  join'd  by  Doctor  Barnett  of  New  Jersey,  who  will  con- 
stantly attend  at  said  Hospital  with  one  or  other  of  said  Physicians 
whose  Business  will  permit,  and  employ  the  utmost  Diligence  and 
Attention  for  the  relief  of  those  that  put  themselves  under  their 
care.  They  further  notify,  that  Point-Shirley  contains  as  many 
comfortable  and  decent  Houses  as  will  be  sufficient  to  accommodate 
as  many  Persons  as  will  probably  ever  offer  for  Inoculation  at  one 
Time,  from  this  or  the  neighbouring  Governments  and  is  well 
furnished  with  every  requisite  Convenience  both  for  Sickness  and 
Health." 

^'  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts. 


88  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

The  hospital  at  Castle  William  was  opened  later. 
Green  quotes  the  following  advertisement  concerning  it 
from  The  Boston  Post-Boy  &  Advertiser  for  February 
2y,  1764.  It  was  conducted  by  Dr.  Samuel  Gelston,  of 
Nantucket. 

"  In  order  to  enlarge  the  Conveniences  for  Inoculation  in  addition 
to  those  already  proposed  at  Point- Shirley,  that  every  Person  de- 
sirous of  undergoing  that  Operation  may  have  an  Opportunity  of 
doing  it  without  endangering  the  Spreading  of  the  Distemper,  and 
that  this  Town  may  be,  as  soon  as  possible,  freed  from  the  appre- 
hension of  the  Small-Pox;  the  Governor  has  consented  that  the 
Barracks  of  Castle-William  shall  be  improved  for  the  Purpose  of 
Inoculation,  from  this  Time  into  the  Middle  of  May  next.  And 
the  said  Barracks  are  now  open  to  All  Physicians  having  Patients 
to  Inoculate,  under  such  Rules  as  shall  be  thought  proper  to  be 
made  for  that  purpose.  There  are  in  the  Barrack  48  Rooms,  each 
of  which  will  contain  ten  Patients  conveniently." 

Also  from  the  same  newspaper  for  March  5,  1764,  the 

following : 

"Dr.  Samuel  Gelston 

"  Gives  this  Publick  Notice  to  his  Patients  in  Boston  and  the 
adjacent  Towns  that  he  has  prepared  (by  Permission  of  his  Excel- 
lency the  Governor)  all  comfortable  Accommodations  for  them  at 
the  Barracks  at  Castle-William,  in  order  to  their  being  inoculated 
for  the  Small-Pox  under  his  immediate  Care. 

"N.  B.  His  Rooms  are  in  that  Part  of  the  Barrack  where  the 
Patients  of  Dr.  Nathaniel  Perkins,  Dr.  Whitworth  and  Dr.  Lloyd 
are  received. 

"  Dr.  Gelston  and  Dr.  Warren  reside  at  Castle-William  Day  and 
Night. 

"All  Persons  inclined  to  go  to  the  Barracks  at  Castle- William 
to  be  inoculated  where  Dr.  Gelston  resides,  may  apply  to  Dr.  Lloyd 
at  his  House  near  the  King's  Chapel,  who  will  provide  them  a 
Passage  to  the  Castle." 

Dr.  Green  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  inocu- 
lating hospital  which  was  opened  on  Cat  Island,  near 
Marblehead,  in  October,  1773.  It  was  called  the  Essex 
Hospital,   and  accommodated  eighty  patients,   and  was 


I)K.    JAMKS    L|.ii\I) 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  89 

"  approved  by  the  Gentlemen  Select-Men  of  Salem  and 
Marblehead."  The  regulations  governing  it  were  pub- 
lished in  the  Essex  Gazette  for  October  5,  1773.  There 
was  much  feeling  against  its  establishment  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  it  was  destroyed  by  an  incendiary  fire  on 
January  26,  1774.  Two  of  the  ringleaders  of  the  incen- 
diaries were  arrested  on  February  25  and  put  in  the 
Salem  jail,  but  a  mob  rescued  them  and  took  them  home 
to  Marblehead. 

Norris  ^^  says  that  in  1750  the  subject  of  smallpox  and 
inoculation  was  still  a  matter  of  much  discussion  in 
Philadelphia.  In  that  year  Dr.  Adam  Thompson  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  "  On  the  Preparation  of  the  Body  for 
the  Smallpox,"  of  which  Norris  was  unable  to  find  a 
copy,  but  in  which  the  author  states  that,  upon  the  sug- 
gestion of  Boerhaave,  ''  he  was  led  to  prepare  his  pa- 
tients for  the  infection  by  a  composition  of  mercury  and 
antimony,  and  that  he  had  employed  it  for  twelve  years 
with  great  success."  Dr.  Kearsly  attacked  the  author's 
views  in  the  following  year  by  publishing  "  Remarks  on 
a  Discourse  on  Preparing  for  the  Smallpox,"  and  this 
in  turn  was  replied  to  by  Dr.  Alexander  Hamilton,  of 
Annapolis,  Maryland,  who  published  "  A  Defence  of  Dr. 
Thompson's  Discourse." 

In  1756  there  was  a  serious  outbreak  of  smallpox  in 
Philadelphia.  Norris  says  that  the  arrival  of  some  Brit- 
ish troops  under  Colonel  Boquet  helped  to  spread  the  dis- 
ease, and  Governor  Denny,  in  his  message  to  the  Assem- 
bly in  December,  said,  "  The  smallpox  is  increasing 
among  the  soldiers  to  such  a  degree  that  the  whole  town 
will  soon  become  a  hospital." 

Dr.  Laughlin  MacLeane,  an  Irishman,  who  had  gradu- 

^  History  of  Medicine  in   Philadelphia,  p.   106. 


90  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

ated  at  Edinburgh,  and  come  to  this  country  as  a  surgeon 
in  the  British  army,  published  "An  Essay  on  the  Expe- 
diency of  Inoculation,  and  the  Seasons  jnost  proper  for 
it,  Humbly  inscribed  to  the  inhabitants  of  Philadelphia. 
Printed  by  William  Bradford,  at  the  corner  house  of 
Market  and  Front  streets."  Dr.  Norris  makes  extracts 
from  this  little  work,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  sincere 
effort  to  make  the  people  aware  of  the  benefits  of  inocu- 
lation. 

Dr.  Redman  in  1759  also  published  "A  Defence  of 
Inoculation." 

In  January,  1773,  Dr.  Glentworth  opened  an  inocula- 
tion hospital  in  Philadelphia,  the  smallpox  being  very 
prevalent  in  the  city  at  that  time.  There  was  an  inocula- 
tion hospital  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  founded  in  1770 
by  Dr.  John  Ely,  who  was  subsequently  a  colonel  in  the 
Revolutionary  War. 

Dr.  Sylvester  Gardiner,  who  besides  a  large  practice 
ran  the  largest  drug-store  in  Boston,  offered  to  put  up 
at  his  own  expense  an  inoculating  hospital  for  sick  and 
wounded  sailors,  but  the  offer  was  probably  not  accepted, 
for  we  hear  nothing  more  of  it.^^ 

In  the  winter  of  1774  smallpox  was  epidemic  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  eight  prominent  medical  men  volunteered 
their  services  to  a  "  Society  for  Inoculating  the  Poor." 

In  September,  1774,  when  Congress  was  in  session 
in  the  city,  the  physicians  of  Philadelphia  met  and  agreed 
to  inoculate  no  more  persons  during  the  sitting  of  Con- 
gress, "  as  several  of  the  Northern  and  Southern  dele- 
gates are  understood  not  to  have  had  that  disorder." 

In  1779  the  discovery  of  the  efficacy  of  vaccination  as 
a  prophylactic  and  curative  agent  against  smallpox  was 

^°  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Proceedings,  June,  1859. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  91 

announced  by  Jenner.  The  first  to  introduce  the  practice 
of  vaccination  into  the  United  States  was  Dr.  Benjamin 
Waterhouse,  who  was  at  the  time  professor  of  medicine 
in  Harvard.  In  July,  1800,  he  got  some  vaccine  virus 
from  England  and  with  it  vaccinated  his  own  son,  thus 
performing  that  operation  for  the  first  time  in  this  coun- 
try. This  boy  was  about  seven  years  old,  and  the  doctor 
after  vaccinating  him  performed  the  same  act  on  his 
three  other  children,  afterwards  exposing  them  to  the 
disease  without  any  of  them  contracting  it. 

At  about  the  same  time  Dr.  Crawford,  of  Baltimore, 
procured  some  virus  from  London  and  successfully  vac- 
cinated a  number  of  persons.  A  most  interesting  account 
of  Dr.  Crawford,  written  by  Dr.  Cordell,  of  Baltimore, 
was  published  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Bulletin 
for  August-September,  1899. 

In  the  following  September  Dr.  James  Jackson  brought 
some  virus  from  England  and  tried  to  use  it,  but  the 
attempt  failed,  as  for  some  reason  it  had  lost  its  efficacy. 

Some  vaccine  virus  which  Dr.  Miller,  of  New  York, 
had  procured  from  London  also  failed.  These  failures 
somewhat  retarded  its  introduction  into  general  use. 

In  1 80 1,  however,  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society 
procured  some  excellent  virus  from  the  Vaccine  Institu- 
tion of  London,  and  soon  reports  of  the  efficacy  of  the 
practice  became  frequent.  It  was  unfortunate  in  these 
early  days,  when  the  subject  was  still  in  the  experimental 
stage,  that  Dr.  Waterhouse  should  have  become  involved 
in  a  misunderstanding  with  the  Massachusetts  Medical 
Society,  thereby  rendering  the  difficulty  surrounding  the 
task  of  ascertaining  the  merit  of  the  procedure  addition- 
ally hard.  The  first  vaccination  in  Philadelphia  was 
performed  upon  an  infant  son  of  Dr.  John  Redman  Coxe, 
with  virus  procured  directly  from  Jenner  by  his  father. 


92  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

In  1802  the  Board  of  Health  of  Boston  equipped  a 
hospital  on  Noddle's  Island  and  secured  the  services  of 
a  number  of  physicians  to  investigate  the  merits  of  vac- 
cination. 

On  August  16,  1802,  they  vaccinated  nineteen  boys, 
all  of  whom  passed  through  the  successive  stages  of  cow- 
pox,  and  then,  on  November  9,  twelve  of  them,  and  also 
a  son  of  Dr.  Bartlett,  who  had  previously  had  cowpox, 
were  inoculated  for  smallpox  with  matter  taken  from  a 
patient  suffering  from  that  disease.  None  of  the  children 
suffered  from  this  experiment.  Then,  in  order  to  show 
that  the  virus  was  that  of  true  smallpox,  two  boys  who 
had  not  been  vaccinated  were  inoculated  with  it,  and  had 
the  typical  reaction  which  always  followed  such  inocula- 
tion in  an  unprotected  person.  When  these  two  cases 
were  in  their  acme,  matter  was  taken  from  them  and 
injected  for  a  second  time  into  the  arms  of  the  twelve 
children  who  had  been  previously  inoculated,  and  also 
in  the  arms  of  the  seven  boys  who  had  been  absent  at 
the  first  inoculation;  these  latter  had  been  exposed  to 
infection  and  had  yet  escaped  it,  having  been  in  the  room 
with  the  two  boys  who  had  the  smallpox,  some  of  them 
as  long  as  twenty  days.    The  whole  nineteen  now  escaped. 

The  report  of  these  experiments  was  signed  by  eleven 
physicians,  and  was  published  in  the  Columbian  Centinel 
for  December  18,  1802. 

Milton,  Massachusetts,  was  the  first  town  to  give  free 
vaccination  to  all  its  inhabitants. 

In  1809  three  hundred  and  thirty-seven  persons  were 
vaccinated  in  the  town ;  twelve  of  them  were  afterwards 
found  immuned  to  smallpox  by  the  application  of  the 
inoculation  test.  This  test  was  conducted  by  Dr.  Amos 
Holbrook.  The  town  published  all  these  facts  in  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  "A  Collection  of  Papers  relative  to  the 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  93 

Transactions  of  the  Town  of  Milton,  in  the  State  of 
Massachusetts,  to  promote  a  General  Inoculation  of  the 
Cow  Pox,  or  Kine  Pox,  as  a  never  failing  preventative 
against  Small  Pox  Infection." 

Bedford,  Massachusetts,  offered  gratuitous  vaccination 
to  its  citizens  about  the  same  time. 

March  10,  1810,  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts 
passed  an  act  by  which  the  towns  of  the  State  were  di- 
rected to  appoint  committees  to  superintend  the  vaccina- 
tion of  their  citizens,  and  the  towns  were  also  authorized 
to  bear  the  expense. 

Measles. 

Measles  seems  at  times  to  have  raged  very  fatally  in 
some  of  the  colonial  towns. 

In  171 3  it  prevailed  in  many  localities  in  the  New 
England  States. 

In  1740-41  Connecticut  was  swept  by  a  severe  epidemic 
of  measles. 

In  1758  and  in  1759  measles  prevailed  in  epidemic 
form  in  many  different  parts  of  North  America. 

In  1772  between  eight  hundred  and  nine  hundred 
deaths  from  measles  occurred  among  the  children  of 
Charleston,  South  Carolina. 

In  March,  1773,  measles  broke  out  in  epidemic  form 
in  Philadelphia.  It  was  attended  with  efflorescence  about 
the  neck;  at  the  same  time  catarrh,  which  could  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  measles,  is  said  to  have  prevailed. 

In  1783  measles  appeared  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in 
May,  and  during  the  remainder  of  the  year  was  prevalent 
throughout  New  England. 

In  November,  1778,  a  very  malignant  epidemic  of 
measles  broke  out  in  New  York,  and  a  little  later  in  the 
same  winter  the  epidemic  spread  through  Philadelphia. 


94  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Scarlet  Fever. 

Philadelphia  was  visited  by  an  epidemic  of  scarlet  fever 
in  September,  1783,  and  the  disease  prevailed  in  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  at  the  same  time. 

In  1784  scarlet  fever  was  epidemic  in  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  in  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  in 
Connecticut.  Webster  says  that  for  five  years  subse- 
quently scarlet  fever  was  more  frequent  than  usual 
throughout  the  country. 

In  1789  scarlet  fever  was  epidemic  in  Philadelphia  and 
parts  of  New  Jersey. 

In  1793  and  1794  scarlet  fever  prevailed  in  more  or 
less  epidemic  form  throughout  all  the  Northern  States. 

Influenza. 

Epidemics  of  influenza  prevailed  throughout  the  colo- 
nies at  various  times. 

In  the  year  1647  ^-^  epidemic  of  this  nature  swept 
through  the  New  England  settlements.  Winthrop  ^^ 
has  left  us  a  graphic  description  of  it,  as  follows : 

"  An  epidemical  sickness  was  through  the  country  among  Indians 
and  English,  French  and  Dutch.  It  took  them  like  a  cold  and 
slight  fever  with  it.  Such  as  bled  or  used  cooling  drinks  died ; 
those  who  took  comfortable  things,  for  most  part  recovered  and 
that  in  few  days.  Wherein  a  special  providence  of  God  appeared, 
for  not  a  family,  nor  but  few  persons  escaping  it,  had  it  brought 
all  so  weak  as  it  brought  some,  and  continued  so  long  our  hay 
and  corn  had  been  lost  for  want  of  help ;  but  such  was  the  mercy  of 
God  to  his  people,  as  few  died,  not  above  40  or  50  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts, and  near  as  many  at  Connecticut." 

Love  ^^  quotes  the  description  given  of  this  illness  by 
John  Eliot.  He  wrote  of  it  as  "  a  very  depe  cold,  wth 
some  tincture  of  a  feaver  &  full  of  malignity  &  very 

^  History  of  New  England,  vol.  ii.  p.  310. 

^  Fast  and  Thanksgiving  Days  in  New  England,  p.  186. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  95 

dangerous  if  not  well  regarded  by  keeping  a  low  diet." 
Eliot  thought  it  seemed  as  though  the  Angel  of  God  had 
smitten  the  people.  In  this  epidemic  Winthrop's  wife 
died,  also  the  Rev.  Thomas  Hooker. 

Hubbard  refers  to  an  epidemic  of  influenza  which  swept 
the  New  England  colonies  in  1655.  He  speaks  of  it  as 
having  been  accompanied  by  "  a  faint  cough."  There 
was  also  an  outbreak  of  influenza  in  1660. 

Webster  ^^  quotes  a  description  of  the  influenza  which 
prevailed  in  New  England  in  1697-98  from  a  diary  kept 
by  one  Daniel  Fairfield,  of  Braintree,  Massachusetts. 
The  epidemic  began  in  November  and  continued  until 
February.  "  Its  violence  was  in  January,  when  whole 
families  were  sick  at  once,  and  whole  towns  were  seized 
nearly  at  the  same  time." 

At  the  same  time  a  similar  condition  of  affairs  pre- 
vailed in  Fairfield,  Connecticut,  where,  in  a  town  of  less 
than  one  thousand  inhabitants,  seventy  persons  were 
buried  in  three  months. 

In  1747  influenza  raged  all  over  North  America,  and 
again  in  1761. 

Dr.  Cotton  Tufts,  of  Weymouth,  furnished  Webster 
with  the  following  account  of  the  symptoms  presented 
by  the  disease  during  the  epidemic  of  1761 : 

"  The  distemper  began  in  April,  and  in  May  ran  into  a  malignant 
fever,  which  proved  fatal  to  aged  people.  It  spread  over  the  whole 
country  and  the  West  India  Islands.  It  began  with  a  severe  pain 
in  the  head  and  limbs,  a  sensation  of  coldness,  shiverings  succeeded 
by  great  heat,  running  at  the  nose,  and  a  troublesome  cough.  It 
continued  for  eight  or  ten  days,  and  generally  terminated  by 
sweating. 

"  In  May,  the  aged  who  had  before  escaped,  were  seized  with 
an  affection  like  a  slight  cold;  this  in  a  day  or  two  was  followed  by 
great   prostration   of   strength,   a  cough,   labor   of  breathing,   pains 

"  Eoidemic  and  Pestilential  Diseases. 


96  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

about  the  breast,  prsecordia,  and  in  the  limbs,  but  not  acute.  The 
countenance  betrayed  no  great  marks  of  febrile  heat.  The  matter 
expectorated  was  thin  but  slimy.  As  the  disease  advanced,  the 
difficulty  of  breathing  increased ;  the  expectoration  was  more  diffi- 
cult ;  the  matter  thrown  off  more  viscid ;  at  length  the  lungs  ap- 
peared to  be  so  loaded  with  tenacious  matter,  that  no  efforts  could 
dislodge  it,  and  the  patient  sunk  under  it.  This  disorder  carried  with 
it  bilious  appearances  —  the  countenances  of  some  patients  were  of  a 
yellowish  hue.  In  some,  there  was  an  appearance  of  indifference  or 
insensibility;    and  at  night  a  slight  delirium." 

Altogether  the  above  picture  is  very  characteristic  of 
the  disorder  which  we  now  call  la  grippe. 

The  disease  was  epidemic  all  over  the  country  in  the 
spring  of  1781,  and  was  observed  to  leave  a  tendency  to 
the  development  of  pulmonary  consumption. 

In  the  autumn  of  1789  influenza  was  epidemic  in  New 

York  and  Philadelphia,  and  a  little  later  through  New 

England. 

Diphtheria. 

In  1659  an  epidemic  disease  ravaged  the  New  England 
States  which  is  referred  to  by  contemporary  annalists  as 
"  Cynanche  Trachealis,"  and  was  doubtless  the  disease  we 
term  diphtheria.  A  day  of  thanksgiving  was  ordered 
by  the  Legislature  of  Connecticut  at  the  cessation  of  an 
epidemic  of  this  character  in  1662. 

In  1735  and  1736  Boston  was  visited  by  an  epidemic, 
which  was  undoubtedly  diphtheria,  though  then  termed 
angina  maligna.  An  excellent  account  of  it  was  written 
by  Dr.  William  Douglas,  under  the  title  "  The  Practical 
History  of  A  New  Epidemical  Eruptive  Miliary  Fever, 
with  an  Angina  Ulcusculosa  which  Prevailed  in  Boston 
New  England  in  the  Years  1735  and  1736." 

The  ravages  of  the  disease  must  have  been  something 
fearful,  as  Green  ^^  has  quoted  from  The  Boston  Weekly 

^^  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  97 

News-Letter  for  April  29,  1736,  the  following  proclama- 
tion to  show : 

"  The  Select-Men  of  the  Town  of  Boston,  in  order  to  inform  the 
Trading  Part  of  our  neighbouring  Colonies,  concerning  the  state  of 
the  present  prevailing  Distemper  in  this  Place,  did  desire  a  Meeting 
of  as  many  of  the  Practitioners  in  Physick  as  could  then  be  con- 
veniently obtained.  The  Practitioners  being  accordingly  met,  did 
unanimously  agree  to  the  following  Articles ; 

"  I.  That  upon  the  first  appearance  of  this  Illness  in  Boston  the 
Select-Men  did  advise  with  the  Practitioners;  but  they  at  that  Time 
having  not  had  opportunities  of  observing  the  Progress  of  the  Dis- 
temper, it  was  thought  advisable  (until  further  Experience)  to  shut 
up  that  Person  who  was  supposed  to  have  received  it  in  Exeter  to 
the  Eastward,  upon  his  Death  the  Watch  was  soon  removed,  but  no 
Infection  was  observed  to  spread  or  catch  in  that  Quarter  of  the 
Town ;  therefore  no  Watches  were  appointed  in  the  other  Parts 
of  the  Town  where  it  afterwards  appeared,  the  Practitioners  judging 
it  to  proceed  from  some  occult  Quality  in  the  Air,  and  not  from 
any  observable  Infection  communicated  by  Persons  or  Goods. 

"  2.  The  Practitioners  and  their  Families  have  not  been  seized 
with  this  Distemper  in  a  more  remarkable  manner  (and  as  it  has 
happened  not  so  much)  than  other  Families  in  Town,  even  than 
those  Families  who  live  in  solitary  Parts  thereof. 

"  3.  As  to  the  Mortality  or  Malignity  of  this  Distemper,  all  whom 
it  may  concern  are  referred  to  the  Boston  Weekly  Journal  of 
Burials;  by  the  Burials  it  is  notorious,  that  .scarce  any  Distemper, 
even  the  most  favourable  which  has  at  any  Time  prevailed  so  gen- 
erally, has  produced  fewer  Deaths. 

"  4.  As  formerly,  so  now  again  after  many  Months  Observation, 
we  conclude,  That  the  present  prevailing  Distemper  appears  to  us  to 
proceed  from  some  Affection  of  the  Air,  and  not  from  any  personal 
Infection  receiv'd  from  the  Sick,  or  Goods  in  their  neighbourhood. 

"  Nathaniel  Williams 
William    Douglass 
John  Cutler 
Hugh  Kennedy 
William  Davis 
Thomas  Bulfinch." 

The  disease  was  commonly  known  as  the  "  Throat  Dis- 
temper," and  according  to  Wehster,^^  this  epidemic  hegan 

"  Epidemics   and   Pestilential   Diseases. 
7 


98  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

in  the  town  of  Kingston,  New  Hampshire.  Three 
months  after  its  first  appearance  in  that  town  the  dis- 
ease appeared  at  Exeter,  six  miles  distant,  and  one  month 
later  had  become  prevalent  in  Boston.  The  epidemic 
extended  its  area,  and  gradually  the  disease  broke  out  in 
Connecticut,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey. 

Wickes  ^^  quotes  two  notices  regarding  this  outbreak 
from  Zenger's  Weekly,  of  New  York.  The  first  is  dated 
February  9,  1735-36: 

"  Throat  Distemper  :  We  are  informed  that  at  Crosswicks  in 
West  Jersey,  divers  persons  have  lately  died  with  a  distemper  in 
the  throat,  and  that  that  Distemper  prevails  there.  We  are  there- 
fore desired  to  publish  the  following  remedy  (which  has  proved  suc- 
cessful) for  the  advantage  of  those  who  may  hereafter  be  visited 
with  the  like  distemper :  —  Take  some  Honey  and  the  sharpest 
Vinegar  with  Allum  dissolved  therein,  and  let  the  patients  often 
gargle  it  in  their  throats ;  or  if  they  be  children,  then  take  a  feather 
and  dip  it  in  said  liquor,  and  so  wash  their  throats." 

The  second  extract  is  dated  March  18,  1735-36.  It  is 
a  notice  copied  from  the  Boston  Gazette,  written  by  a 
physician. 

"  Method  of  Cure  of  Throat  Distemper.  What  is  used  is  as 
follows.  First  be  sure  that  a  vein  be  opened  under  the  tongue,  and 
if  that  can't  be  done,  open  a  vein  in  the  arm,  which  must  be  first 
done,  as  all  other  means  will  be  ineffectual.  Then  take  borax  or 
honey  to  bathe  or  annoint  the  mouth  and  throat,  and  lay  on  the 
Throat  a  plaister  Vngiuntum  Dialtha;.  To  drink  a  decoction  of 
Devil's  bitt  or  Robbin's  Plantain,  with  some  Sal  Prunelle  dissolved 
therein,  as  often  as  the  patient  will  drink.  If  the  body  be  costive 
use  a  clyster  agreeable  to  the  nature  of  the  Distemper.  I  have  known 
many  other  things  used,  especially  a  root  called  Physick  Root, 
filarie  or  five-leaved  physick ;  also  a  root  that  I  know  no  name  for, 
only  Canker  Root.  But  be  sure  and  let  blood,  and  that  under  the 
tongue.  We  have  many  times  made  Blisters  under  the  arms,  but 
that  has  proved  sometimes  dangerous.  ...  It  is  a  distemper  which 
has  spread  in  many  places  in  this  Colony"   (Massachusetts). 

'"  History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  99 

Webster  says  the  symptoms  generally  were  "  a  swelled 
throat,  with  white  or  ash-colored  specks,  an  efflorescence 
on  the  skin,  great  debility  of  the  whole  system,  and  a 
tendency  to  putridity."     He  adds : 

"  It  continued  its  ravages,  through  that  year  into  the  next,  and 
gradually  travelled  southward,  almost  stripping  the  country  of  chil- 
dren. Very  few  children  escaped,  for  altho'  the  disease  was  very 
infectious,  yet  its  propagation  depended  very  little  on  that  circum- 
stance. It  attacked  the  young  in  the  most  sequestered  situations, 
and  without  a  possible  communication  with  the  sick.  It  was  liter- 
ally the  plague  among  children." 

In  1742  diphtheria  was  once  more  epidemic  in  many 
of  the  Northern  colonies.  In  1755  diphtheria  again  pre- 
vailed, and  in  one  town  in  Long  Island  "  two  children 
only,  under  twelve  years  of  age,  survived."  ^^ 

Webster  says  that  measles  prevailed  in  1733  through- 
out America : 

"  But  the  most  mortal  disease  was  cynanche  trachealis  or  bladder 
in  the  throat.  In  general,  there  was  little  canker,  but  an  extreme 
difficulty  of  breathing ;  the  patient  being  nearly  suffocated  with  a 
tough  mucous  or  slime,  which  no  medicine  could  attenuate  or  dis- 
charge, and  which  finally  proved  fatal.  All  medical  aid  was  fruit- 
less, and  scarcely  a  child  that  was  attacked  in  some  towns,  survived. 
This  disease  was  speedily  followed,  in  some  places  by  the  dysentery 
of  a  peculiarly  malignant  type,  occasioning  mortification  on  the 
third  day.  This  disease  was  prevalent  and  very  fatal  in  New  Haven 
and  East  Haven  in  Connecticut,  and  in  Salem,  Massachusetts." 

Webster's  authorities  were  Drs.  Trumbull  and  Hol- 
yoke. 

1775  was  again  marked  in  New  England  by  the  fre- 
quency with  which  diphtheria  prevailed.  It  is  mentioned 
as  being  particularly  severe  at  Middletown,  Connecticut. 

In  1787  diphtheria  was  epidemic  at  Northampton, 
Massachu-setts. 

"  Webster. 


lOO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Dysentery. 

Dysentery  seems  to  have  frequently  prevailed  as  an 
epidemic  among  our  forefathers. 

In  1709  a  body  of  troops  under  command,  of  General 
Nicholson,  engaged  in  an  expedition  against  the  French 
in  Canada,  were  encamped  during  July  and  August  near 
Wood  Creek  in  New  York.  Dysentery  broke  out  among 
them  with  such  violence  as  to  necessitate  their  breaking 
camp.  It  was  currently  believed  at  the  time  that  the 
Indians  had  poisoned  their  water-supply  by  throwing 
into  the  creek  the  skins  of  animals  they  had  killed. 

In  1745  Stamford,  Connecticut,  was  ravaged  by  dysen- 
tery. The  epidemic  was  localized  in  one  street.  There 
were  seventy  deaths  in  a  population  of  several  hundred. 

In  1749  dysentery  again  visited  the  towns  of  Connecti- 
cut. Waterbury  had  one  hundred  and  thirty  deaths, 
chiefly  from  that  disease.  Cornwall  lost  twenty  persons 
by  it.    In  Hartford  and  Woodbury  many  died. 

In  the  winter  of  1750-51  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
suffered  from  another  epidemic  of  the  same  disease. 

In  1758  and  1759  dysentery  was  epidemic  throughout 
many  parts  of  North  America,  especially  in  the  New 
England  colonies. 

In  1776  dysentery  was  prevalent  throughout  North 
America,  and  particularly  so  in  the  various  camps  which 
covered  the  country.  In  Northern  New  York  it  was 
terribly  fatal.  Webster  devotes  much  space  to  the  at- 
tempt to  prove  that  camp-life  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
epidemic,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  many  instances 
the  disease  was  propagated  by  the  conditions  in  which 
the  soldiery  were  placed.  Dr.  Ebenezer  Beardsley  wrote 
an  interesting  account  of  the  outbreak  of  dysentery  in 
the  Twenty-third  Regiment  of  the  Continental  army, 
which  he  attributed  to  overcrowding  in  barracks,  which 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  loi 

were    likewise    poorly    ventilated.      The    regiment    was 

quartered  in  New  York  at  the  time.^"* 

Dysentery  was  epidemic  in  many  places  in  the  State 

of  New  York  and  in  parts  of  Massachusetts  in  1795  and 

1796. 

Pleurisy. 

This  is  not  infrequently  mentioned  as  occurring  in 
epidemic  form  in  the  colonies. 

In  October,  1712,  Webster  says,  there  prevailed  "a 
mortal  sickness  in  the  town  of  Waterbury,  in  Connecti- 
cut, which  raged  for  eleven  months.  It  was  so  general 
that  nurses  could  scarcely  be  found  to  tend  the  sick. 
What  the  disease  was,  I  am  not  informed;  but  not  im- 
probably it  was  that  species  of  putrid  pleurisy,  which 
has  so  often  made  dreadful  havoc  in  America." 

Hydrophobia. 
Webster  says  that  in  1785  "canine  madness  began  to 
rage  and  spread  in  all  parts  of  the  northern  States.  The 
gazettes  of  1785  abound  with  accounts  of  this  dreadful 
disease."  He  mentions  it  as  being  very  frequent  again 
in  1789. 

Unclassified  Epidemic  Diseases. 

In  the  winter  of  1697-98  a  deadly  fever  raged  in  Dover, 
New  Hampshire,  of  which  Webster  says, — 

"  This  disease  was  doubtless  that  species  of  inflammatory  fever, 
attacking  the  brain  and  ending  in  typhus  which  has  often  proved 
a  terrible  scourge  to  particular  parts  of  America." 

From  the  scanty  evidence  we  possess  it  is  probable  this 
disease  was  epidemic  cerebro-spinal  meningitis. 

"  Dr.  Beardsley's  paper  was  published  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
Transactions  of  the  New  Haven  County  Medical  Society.  This 
was  the  first  volume  of  transactions  ever  published  by  a  medical 
society  in  this  country. 


I02  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

In  1 71 5  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  was  visited  by  a 
very  mortal  epidemic,  regarding  the  exact  nature  of 
which  nothing  is  known.    Forty  deaths  occurred  from  it. 

Webster  said  he  had  seen  a  letter  in  the  possession  of 
Dr.  Rush  from  Thomas  Racket,  of  Duck  Creek,  Dela- 
ware, in  which  he  stated  that  in  the  spring  of  1720 
"a  mortality  prevailed  in  that  place,  which  exceeded 
that  in  London  in  1665,  and  almost  depopulated  the 
village." 

In  1723  a  fatal  disease,  known  as  the  "  burning  ague," 
was  prevalent  in  Rhode  Island.  It  was  particularly  so 
near  Providence. 

"  In  proportion  to  its  patients,  no  disease  in  America,  was  ever 
more  mortal.  It  did  not  prevail  in  a  large  town,  but  in  villages, 
and  perhaps  the  clearing  of  some  neighboring  swamps  might  have 
been  one  cause  of  the  disease." 

In  1746,  according  to  Webster,^^  Albany,  New  York, 
was  visited  by  what  Dr.  Cadwallader  Colden  termed  a 
nervous  fever  and  Dr.  Douglass  yellow  fever.  Webster 
says, — 

"  The  bodies  of  some  of  the  patients  were  yellow  —  the  crisis 
of  the  disease  was  the  ninth  day;  if  the  patient  survived  that  day, 
he  had  a  good  chance  for  recovery.  The  disease  left  many  in  a 
state  of  imbecility  of  mind;  others  were  afterwards  troubled  with 
idiocy;  others  were  afterwards  troubled  with  swelled  legs.  The 
disease  began  in  August,  ended  with  frost,  and  carried  oflf  forty-five 
inhabitants  mostly  men  of  robust  bodies.  It  was  said  to  be  im- 
ported." 

A  similar  disease  raged  simultaneously  among  the 
Mohegan  Indians. 

In  1750  the  town  of  Bethlem,  Connecticut,  suffered 
from  a  fever,  probably  malarial,  which  caused  between 
thirty  and  forty  deaths. 

^  Epidemic  and  Pestilential  Diseases. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  103 

Webster  says  that  in  December,  1753,  and  the  suc- 
ceeding month,  HolHston,  Massachusetts,  lost  forty-three 
inhabitants  by  a  mysterious  febrile  disease : 

"  The  disease  began  with  a  violent  pain  in  the  breast,  or  side, 
not  often  in  the  head ;  then  succeeded  a  high  fever,  but  without  de- 
lirium. The  critical  days  were  the  3d,  4th,  5th,  or  6th.  Some  of  the 
patients  appeared  to  be  strangled  to  death.  The  town  contained  no 
more  than  80  families." 

In  November,  1760,  a  terrible  epidemic  began  in  the 
little  town  of  Bethlem,  Connecticut,  which  continued  its 
ravages  throughout  the  succeeding  winter  and  caused 
the  death  of  forty  persons.  Webster  calls  it  "  an  inflam- 
matory fever,  with  symptoms  of  typhus."  He  says,  "  The 
disease  was  extremely  violent,  terminating  on  the  3d  or 
4th  day;  in  some  cases  the  patient  died  within  24  hours 
of  the  attack."  Dr.  Trumbull,  of  New  Haven,  told  him 
"  The  blood  was  very  thick  and  sizy  [sic]  ;  often  issuing 
from  the  nose  and  sometimes  from  the  eyes.  The  in- 
flammation was  violent  and  soon  produced  delirium. 
The  most  robust  bodies  were  most  liable  to  the  dis- 
ease. A  free  use  of  the  lancet,  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  disorder,  was  the  only  effectual  remedy;  where 
the  physicians  were  afraid  to  bleed,  the  patients  all 
died." 

Webster  evidently  did  not  consider  this  disease  as  epi- 
demic cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  for  he  adds,  "  I  cannot 
learn  that  this  species  of  inflammatory  fever,  has  ever 
been  epidemic  in  the  northern  parts  of  America,  since 
this  period."  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
Webster  was  not  a  medical  man,  and  was  therefore  utterly 
incapable  of  properly  classifying  diseases.  When  he 
writes  down  what  he  has  heard  from  others  he  is  safe, 
but  where  he  attempts  to  formulate  deductions  he  often 
shows  his  ignorance. 


I04  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

The  term  bilious  plague  appears  to  have  been  applied 
to  several  different  diseases.  It  sometimes  undoubtedly 
was  yellow  fever,  frequently  it  was  applied  to  pernicious 
malaria,  and  occasionally  the  disease  signified  by  it  was 
probably  dysentery.  Bilious  plague  prevailed  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  as  an  epidemic  in  1728. 

In  1737  it  was  epidemic  in  Virginia. 

In  1747  it  prevailed  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  the  subse- 
quent year  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 

In  August,  1763,  the  Indians  in  Nantucket  were  at- 
tacked by  the  "  bilious  plague,"  and  Webster  says  that 
between  that  time  and  the  February  following  their  num- 
ber was  reduced  from  three  hundred  and  fifty-eight  to 
one  hundred  and  thirty-six. 

"  The  disease  began  with  high  fever  and  ended  in  typhus,  in  about 
five  days.  It  appeared  to  be  infectious  among  the  Indians  only;  for 
no  whites  were  attacked,  altho  they  associated  freely  with  the  dis- 
eased. Persons  of  a  mixed  blood  were  attacked  but  recovered.  Not 
one  died,  except  of  full  Indian  blood.  Some  Indians  who  lived  in 
the  families  of  the  whites,  escaped  the  disease,  as  did  a  few  that 
lived  by  themselves  on  a  distant  part  of  the  island.  I  am  informed, 
by  respectable  authority,  that  a  similar  fever  attacked  Indians  on 
board  of  ships,  at  a  distance  of  hundreds  of  leagues,  without  any 
connection  with  Nantucket." 

If  this  "  bilious  plague"  had  been  yellow  fever  the 
whites  would  have  suffered  just  as  much  as  the  Indians, 
in  all  probability.  Whatever  its  true  nature  may  have 
been  is  now  entirely  conjectural.  It  sounds  as  though 
its  propagation  had  been  largely  due  to  the  unhygienic 
conditions  of  the  Indian  settlements. 

In  1783  Fell's  Point,  near  Baltimore,  was  visited  by 
"  the  bilious  pestilential  fever,"  and  the  same  disease 
visited  parts  of  New  Jersey. 

In  1772  "  a  mortal  fever"  carried  off  forty  of  the  citi- 
zens of  the  little  town  of  Wellfleet,  on  Cape  Cod. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  105 

In  1794,  1795,  and  1796  the  "bilious  plague"  ap- 
peared in  many  different  places,  especially  in  coast  towns, 
such  as  New  York,  Philadelphia,  New  Haven,  Mill  River, 
Connecticut,  and  Norfolk,  Virginia.  This  disease  in 
many  of  these  instances  was  undoubtedly  yellow  fever, 
but  Webster  was  so  anxious  to  make  it  appear  that  some 
connection  existed  between  comets,  and  other  celestial 
phenomena,  and  the  atmospheric  condition,  and  the  dis- 
ease that  he  might  at  any  particular  time  have  under 
discussion,  that  he  garbled  accounts  and  made  comments 
of  all  kinds  in  the  effort  to  suit  the  facts  to  his  theory, 
and  would  not  admit  that  the  disease  in  the  towns  differed 
in  any  respect  from  the  disease  as  it  appeared  in  mal- 
arious districts  in  the  interior.  However,  from  care- 
fully reading  many  of  the  clinical  reports  of  cases,  made 
by  physicians  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  Webster  mixed  up  malarial  fevers,  yellow 
fever,  and  even  influenza,  together  in  an  effort  to  prove 
that  the  sickness  and  mortality,  which  was  excessive  in 
those  years,  was  due  to  "  bilious  plague."  He  even  goes 
so  far,  in  many  instances,  as  to  trace  the  influence  of 
the  atmosphere  on  animals  in  sickly  seasons.  Thus  he 
says,  "  The  pestilential  state  of  the  elements  was  strongly 
marked,  this  year  [1796]  by  the  poorness  of  the  shad 
brought  to  market  in  New  York." 

The  first  use  of  the  name  "  break-bone  fever  "  that  I 
have  found  is  by  Webster.  It  was  applied  to  a  bilious 
remittent  fever  which  was  epidemic  in  Philadelphia  in 
the  summer  of  1780.  The  fever  was  accompanied  by 
"  such  acute  pains  in  the  back,  hips  and  neck,  as  to  obtain 
the  name  of  hreak-bonc-fcver." 


io6  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

NOTE   A. 

BENJAMIN   franklin's    ACCOUNT   OF   INOCULATION   IN   BOSTON. 

"  London  Feb.  i6,  1759. 

"  Having  been  desired  by  my  greatly  esteemed  friend  Dr.  William 
Heberdeen,  F.R.S.,  one  of  the  principal  physicians  of  this  city, 
to  communicate  what  account  I  had  of  the  success  of  Inoculation  in 
Boston,  New  England,  I  some  time  since  wrote  and  sent  to  him 
the  following  paper,  viz.,  About  1753  or  54,  the  Small  Pox  made  its 
appearance  in  Boston,  New  England.  It  had  not  spread  in  the 
town  for  many  years  before  so  that  there  was  a  great  number  of  the 
inhabitants  to  have  it. 

"  At  first  endeavors  were  made  to  prevent  its  spreading  by  re- 
moving the  sick  or  guarding  the  houses  in  which  they  were ;  and 
with  the  same  view  Inoculation  was  forbidden;  but  when  it  was 
found  that  these  endeavors  were  fruitless,  the  distemper  braking 
out  in  different  quarters  of  the  town,  and  increasing,  inoculation  was 
then  permitted. 

"  Upon  this  all  that  inclined  to  Inoculation  for  themselves  or 
families,  hurried  in  to  it  precipitately,  fearing  that  the  affection 
might  otherwise  be  taken  in  the  common  way,  the  numbers  inocu- 
lated in  every  neighborhood  spread  the  infection  likewise  more 
speedily  among  those  who  did  not  choose  Inoculation,  so  that  in  a 
few  months  the  distemper  went  thro'  the  town,  and  was  extinct, 
and  the  trade  of  the  town  suffered  only  a  short  interruption,  com- 
pared with  what  had  been  usual  in  former  times,  the  country  people 
during  the  seasons  of  the  sickness  fearing  all  intercourse  with  the 
town.  As  the  practice  of  Inoculation  always  divided  people  into 
parties,  some  contending  warmly  for  it,  and  others  as  strongly 
against  it,  the  latter  asserting  that  the  advantages  pretended  were 
imaginary,  and  that  the  Surgeons  from  views  of  interest  concealed 
or  diminished  the  true  number  of  deaths  occasioned  by  Inoculation, 
and  magnify'd  the  number  of  those  who  died  of  the  Small  Pox  in 
the  common  way.  It  was  resolved  by  the  Magistrates  of  the  town, 
to  cause  a  strict  and  impartial  enquiry  to  be  made  by  the  Constables 
of  each  ward,  who  were  to  give  in  their  returns  upon  oath ;  and 
that  the  enquiry  might  be  more  strictly  and  impartially  conducted, 
some  of  the  partisans  for  and  against  the  practice  were  join'd  as 
assistants  to  the  officers,  and  accompanied  them  in  their  progress 
through  the  wards  from  house  to  house.  Their  several  returns  being 
received,  and  summ'd  up  together,  the  numbers  turned  out  as 
follows : 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  107 

Had  the  Small  Pox  in  the  Common  way.  Of  these  died. 

Whites  Blacks  Whiles        Blacks 

S059  485  452  62 

Received   the   Distemper   by   Inoculation.  Of   these    died. 

Whites  Blacks  Whites        Blacks 

1974  139  23  7 

"  It  appeared  by  this  account  that  the  deaths  of  those  inoculated 
were  more  in  porportion  at  this  time  than  had  been  formerly  ob- 
served, being  something  more  than  one  in  a  hundred.  The  favorers 
of  Inoculation  however  would  not  allow  that  this  was  owing  to  any 
error  in  the  former  accounts,  but  rather  to  the  Inoculating  at 
this  time  many  unfit  subjects.  Partly  through  the  impatience  of 
people  who  would  not  wait  the  necessary  preparation,  lest  they 
should  take  it  in  the  common  way;  and  partly  from  the  importunity 
of  parents  prevailing  with  the  surgeons  against  their  judgement  and 
advice  to  inoculate  weak  children,  labouring  under  other  disorders, 
because  the  parents  could  not  immediately  move  them  out  of  the 
way  of  the  distemper,  and  thought  they  would  at  least  stand  a  better 
chance  by  being  inoculated,  than  in  taking  the  infection  as  they 
would  probably  do,  in  the  common  way.  The  Surgeons  and  Physi- 
cians were  also  suddenly  oppressed  with  the  great  hurry  of  business, 
which  so  hasty  and  general  an  Inoculation  and  spreading  of  the 
distemper  in  the  common  way  must  occasion,  and  probably  could 
not  so  particularly  attend  to  the  circumstances  of  the  patients  offered 
for  Inoculation. 

"  Inoculation  was  first  practiced  in  Boston  by  Dr.  Boylston  in 
1720.  It  was  not  used  before  in  any  part  of  America,  and  not  in 
Philadelphia  till  1730.  Some  years  since  an  enquiry  was  made  in 
Philadelphia  of  the  several  Surgeons  and  Physicians  who  had  prac- 
tised Inoculation,  what  numbers  had  been  by  each  inoculated,  and 
what  was  the  success.  The  result  of  this  enquiry  was  that  upwards 
of  800  (I  forget  the  exact  number)  had  been  inoculated  at  different 
times,  and  that  only  four  of  them  had  died.  If  this  account  was 
true,  as  I  believe  it  was,  the  reason  of  greater  success  there  than 
had  been  found  in  Boston,  when  the  general  loss  by  Inoculation 
used  to  be  estimated  at  about  one  in  100,  may  probably  be  from  this 
circumstance,  that  in  Boston  they  always  keep  the  distemper  out 
as  long  as  they  can,  so  that  when  it  comes,  it  finds  a  greater  number 
of  adult  subjects  than  in  Philadelphia,  where  since  1730  it  has  gone 
through  the  town  once  in  four  or  five  years,  so  that  the  greatest 
numbers  of  .subjects  for  Inoculation  must  be  under  that  age. 


io8  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

"  Notwithstanding  the  now  uncontroverted  success  of  Inocula- 
tion, it  does  not  seem  to  make  that  progress  among  the  common 
people  in  America,  which  was  at  first  expected.  Scruples  of  con- 
science weigh  with  many,  concerning  the  lawfulness  of  the  practice, 
and  if  one  parent  or  near  relation  is  against  it,  the  other  does  not 
choose  to  inoculate  a  child  without  free  consent  of  all  parties,  lest 
in  case  of  a  disastrous  event,  perpetual  blame  should  follow.  This 
Scruple  a  sensible  Clergy  may  in  time  remove.  The  expence  of 
having  the  operation  performed  by  a  Surgeon,  weighs  with  others, 
for  that  has  been  pretty  high  in  some  parts  of  America;  and  when 
a  common  tradesman  or  artificer  has  a  number  in  his  family  to 
have  the  distemper,  it  amounts  to  more  money  than  he  can  well 
spare.  Many  of  these  rather  than  own  the  true  motive  for  declining 
Inoculation,  join  with  the  scrupulous  in  their  cry  against  it,  and 
influence  others.  A  small  Pamphlet  wrote  in  plain  language  by 
some  skilful  Physician  and  published,  directing  what  preparations 
of  the  body  should  be  used  before  the  Inoculation  of  children,  what 
precautions  to  avoid  giving  the  infection  at  the  same  time  in  the 
common  way,  and  how  the  operation  is  to  be  performed,  the  inci- 
sions dressed,  the  patient  treated,  and  on  the  appearance  of  what 
symptoms  a  physician  is  to  be  called,  might  by  encouraging  parents 
to  inoculate  their  own  children,  be  a  means  of  removing  that  objec- 
tion of  the  expence,  render  the  practice  much  more  general,  and 
thereby  save  the  lives  of  thousands. 

"  B.  Franklin 

of  Philadelphia." 

A  pamphlet  of  this  description,  entitled  "  Plain  Instructions  for 
Inoculation  in  the  Small  Pox,"  was  written  by  Dr.  Heberdeen,  who, 
generously,  and  at  his  own  private  expense,  printed  a  very  large 
impression  of  them,  and  put  them  into  the  hands  of  Dr.  Franklin 
for  gratuitous  distribution  in  America. 

NOTE   B. 
"  Dr.  Dalhonde's  Deposition : — 

"First. — About  twentyfive  years  ago,  I  was  at  Cremona,  in 
Italy,  in  the  French  Army,  where  there  were  thirteen  soldiers  upon 
whom  this  operation  was  performed,  of  which  operation  four  died; 
six  recovered  with  abundance  of  trouble  and  care,  being  seized  with 
parotidal  tumors  and  a  large  inflammation  of  the  throat. 

"  One  of  them  was  opened ;  his  diaphragm  was  found  livid,  the 
glands  of  the  pancreas  tumefied,  and  the  canal  gangrened.  On  the 
other  three  the  operation  had  no  efifect. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  109 

"Secondly. — In  the  year  1701,  being  in  Flanders,  there  was  com- 
mitted to  my  care  one  Captain  Hussart,  taken  ill  of  the  smallpox, 
who  told  me  in  these  words.  Ten  years  ago  I  was  inoculated  five 
or  six  times  without  that  cursed  invention  taking  effect  upon  me; 
must  I  then  perish?  He  was  so  violently  seized  that  he  had  several 
ulcers  upon  his  body,  especially  one  upon  his  arm,  which  occasioned 
a  lameness  thereof  through  life. 

"  Thirdly. — At  the  battle  of  Almanza  in  Spain,  the  smallpox  being 
in  the  army,  two  Muscovite  soldiers  had  the  operation  performed 
upon  them ;  one  recovered,  the  other  received  no  impression,  but  six 
weeks  thereafter  was  seized  with  a  frenzy,  and  swelled  all  over  his 
body.  They,  not  calling  to  mind  that  the  operation  had  been  per- 
formed upon  him,  believed  that  he  had  been  poisoned.  It  was 
ordered  by  two  of  the  King  of  Spain's  physicians,  that  the  body 
should  be  opened.  His  lungs  were  found  ulcerated ;  from  whence 
they  concluded  it  was  the  effect  of  that  corruption,  which  having 
infected  the  lymph  did  throw  itself  upon  that  vital  part,  which 
occasioned  his  sudden  death.     By  me 

"  Dr.  L.-vwrence  D.\lhoxde 

"  Boston,  July  22nd,  1721 

"  The  above  is  a  true  translation  from  the  declaration  made 
in  French  by  Dr.  Dalhonde,  done  at  the  instance  and  request  of  the 
Selectmen  of  the  town  of  Boston. 


Tim.  Clark  „ 

William  Welsted  ^  J"^*"  •^^^■ 


j  Just 


By      William  Douglass 
Joseph  Marion 


no  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


CHAPTER    TIL 

EPIDEMIC  SICKNESS  AND  MORTALITY  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 
FROM  ITS  EARLIEST  DISCOVERY  BY  THE  ENGLISH  TO 
THE    YEAR    180O     (CONTINUED). 

Yellow  Fever. 

The  first  recorded  appearance  of  what  was  un- 
doubtedly yellow  fever  in  what  is  now  the  United  States 
was  in  1647.  Our  account  of  it  is  derived  from  Win- 
throp's  "  History  of  New  England."  It  led  to  the  first 
quarantine  regulation  known  to  have  been  made  in  this 
country.  The  disease  was  at  that  time  most  commonly 
known  as  the  Barbadoes  Distemper. 

News  came  to  Massachusetts  in  1647  that  there  had 
been  a  drought  in  the  Barbadoes, 

"  followed  presently  by  a  great  mortality,  (whether  it  were  the 
plague  or  pestilent  fever  it  killed  in  three  days)  that  in  Barba- 
does there  died  6,000,  and  in  Christophers,  of  English  and  French 
men,  near  as  many,  and  in  other  islands  proportionable.  The  re- 
port of  this  coming  to  us  by  a  vessel  which  came  from  Fayal,  the 
Court  published  an  order,  that  all  vessels  which  should  come  from 
the  West  Indies,  should  stay  at  the  Castle  and  not  come  on  shore, 
nor  put  any  goods  on  shore,  without  license  of  three  of  the  council, 
on  pain  of  100  pounds,  nor  any  to  go  aboard,  etc.,  on  like  penalty. 
The  like  order  was  sent  to  Salem  and  other  Haven  towns.  But 
one  goodman  Dell,  of  Boston,  coming  from  Christophers  in  a 
small  pinnace,  and  being  put  into  Gloucester,  and  there  forbidden 
to  land,  and  informed  of  the  order  of  Court  yet  coming  into  the 
Bay  and  being  hailed  by  the  Castle  boat,  and  after  by  the  Captain 
of  the  Castle,  denied  that  he  came  from  the  West  Indies,  and 
having  taken  in  3  fishermen  (whom  the  Captain  knew)  who  joined 
with  him  in  the  same  lie,  they  were  let  pass,  and  so  came  on  shore 
at  Boston,  before  it  was  known.  But  such  of  the  Council  as  were 
near  assembled  the  next  day,  and  sent  for  some  of  the  company. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  iii 

and  upon  examination  finding  that  the  sickness  had  been  ceased 
at  Christophers  3  months  before  they  came  forth,  so  as  there  could 
be  no  danger  of  infection  in  their  persons,  they  gave  them  liberty 
to  continue  on  shore,  but  for  cotton  and  such  goods  as  might  retain 
the  infection,  they  ordered  them  to  be  laid  in  a  house  remote,  and 
for  Dell,  he  was  bound  over  to  the  next  Court  to  answer  his 
contempt.  About  14  days  after  came  a  ship  from  Malago,  which 
had  stayed  9  days  at  Barbadoes.  She  was  stopped  at  the  Castle. 
The  Captain  brought  the  Master  and  2  others  to  Boston  (which 
he  ought  not  to  have  done).  Four  magistrates  examined  them 
upon  oath  and  finding  they  were  all  well,  save  two  (who  had  the 
flux),  and  no  goods  from  Barbadoes  but  3  bags  of  cotton,  which 
were  ordered  to  be  landed  etc.  at  an  island,  the  ship  was  suffered 
to  come  up,  but  none  to  come  on  shore  for  a  week  after  etc." 

In  the  session  of  the  General  Court  in  the  spring  of 
1649  ^t  is  recorded  that — 

"  The  Courte  dothe  thinke  meete,  that  the  order,  concerning  the 
stoping  of  West  India  ships  at  the  "Castle  should  hereby  be  re- 
pealed seeing  it  hath  pleased  God  to  stay  the  sickness  there." 

On  October  11,  1665,  the  General  Court  ordered  all 
vessels  coming  from  England  to  be  quarantined  owing 
to  the  great  plague  of  London,  which  was  then  prevail- 
ing, the  plague  of  which  Defoe  wrote  his  famous  descrip- 
tion. 

In  the  summer  of  1693  a  fleet  of  English  war-ships 
under  command  of  Sir  Francis  Wheeler  put  into  Boston 
Harbor  from  the  Barbadoes.  Sewall  ^  writes  of  a  num- 
ber of  deaths  which  occurred  from  the  "  Fever"  con- 
veyed by  the  ships : 

"  Last  night  Tim  Wadsworth's  man  dies  of  the  Fever  of  the 
Fleet,  as  is  supposed,  he  having  been  on  board  and  in  the  Hold  of 
some  ship.  Town  is  much  startled  at  it."  July  24,  "  Capt.  Turcll 
is  buried.     Mr.  Joseph  Dassaett  was  buried  yesterday,  being  much 

lamented.     Jno  Shove  and Saxton  died  before,  all  of  the  Fleet 

Fever,  as  is  supposed ;   besides  others.    The  Town  is  much  startled. 

'  Diary,  Massachusetts  Historical  Society's  Collections,  fifth  series, 
vol.  v.  pp.  379,  380. 


112  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Capt.  Byfield  speaks  of  removing  his  wife  and  daughters  to  Bristol. 
One  of  the  Fleet-Women  dies  this  day,  July  24,  1693,  at  David 
Johnson's  over  against  the  Town-house. 

"  July  25,  Three  Carpenters  die. 

"  July  26,  Dr.  Pemberton  dies.  Persons  are  generally  under 
much  consternation,  which  Mr.  Willard  takes  notice  of  in  his 
prayers." 

With  the  judge's  well-known  delight  in  attending 
sick-beds  and  funerals  this  must  have  been  a  time  of 
sincere  joy  to  him. 

In  1699  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  Philadelphia 
were  devastated  by  a  most  malignant  epidemic  of  yellow 
fever.  It  made  its  appearance  in  Philadelphia  towards 
the  latter  part  of  August,  and  before  it  ceased  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty  deaths  had  occurred  from  it.  This  was 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city, 
which  was  then  but  seventeen  years  old.  Watson  ^ 
quotes  from  a  manuscript  found  among  the  papers  of 
Isaac  Norris,  Sr.,  the  following  remarks  concerning  it: 

"  About  the  time  of  harvest  proved  the  hottest  summer  he  had 
ever  experienced.  Several  persons  died  in  the  field  with  the  violence 
of  the  heat." 

Of  the  fever  he  says, — 

"  This  is  quite  the  Barbadoes  distemper  —  they  void  and  vomit 
blood.  There  is  not  a  day  nor  night  has  passed  for  several  weeks, 
but  we  have  the  account  of  the  death  or  sickness  of  some  friend 
or  neighbor.  It  hath  been  sometimes  very  sickly,  but  I  never 
before  knew  it  so  mortal  as  now ;  nine  persons  lay  dead  in  one 
day  at  the  same  time ;  very  few  recover.  All  business  and  trade 
down.     The  fall  itself  was  extremely  moderate  and  open." 

Thomas  Story  in  his  Journal  says  from  six  to  eight 
persons  died  daily  of  the  fever,  and  adds, — 


"  Annals  of  Philadelphia,  vol.  ii.  p.  270. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  113 

"  Great  was  the  fear  that  fell  upon  all  flesh.  I  saw  no  lofty  or 
airy  countenances,  nor  heard  any  vain  jesting;  but  every  face 
gathered  paleness,  and  many  hearts  were  humbled." 

In  Charleston  an  outbreak  of  smallpox  occurred  simul- 
taneously with  the  yellow  fever,  and  an  immense  tidal 
wave  swept  over  the  town,  so  that  the  terrified  inhabi- 
tants were  so  panic-stricken  that  many  permanently 
moved  away  from  a  city  which  seemed  doomed  to  de- 
struction. 

In  1702  yellow  fever  prevailed  in  New  York.  It  seems 
to  have  been  of  the  utmost  malignancy,  as  few  whom  it 
attacked  survived  the  disease.  It  was  popularly  termed 
"  the  great  sickness,"  and  has  been  called  "  the  American 
plague."  In  a  population  of  between  six  thousand  and 
seven  thousand  there  were  five  hundred  deaths  up  to  the 
1st  of  September,  and  seventy  more  in  the  first  week  of 
that  month.  Its  ravages  began  some  time  in  the  summer. 
The  epidemic  was  so  alarming  as  to  cause  the  Assembly 
of  New  York  to  meet  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  instead  of 
in  the  city  of  New  York.  The  disease  was  supposed  to 
have  been  imported  from  St.  Thomas,  West  Indies. 

In  1732  New  York  was  visited  in  the  autumn  by  "  a 
malignant  infectious  fever,"  of  which  seventy  persons 
died  in  a  few  weeks. 

The  "  American  plague"  raged  in  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  at  the  same  time. 

In  1737,  1 74 1,  and  1742  yellow  fever  was  prevalent 
in  Virginia.-'     Dr.  John  Mitchell  had  an  opportunity  to 

■*  Our  information  concerning  its  existence  is  derived  from  an 
"Account  of  the  Yellow  Fever  which  prevailed  in  Virginia  in  the 
years  1737,  1741,  and  1742,  in  a  Letter  to  the  late  Cadwallader  Golden, 
Esq.,  of  New  York,  from  the  late  John  Mitchell,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  of 
Virginia,"  published  in  the  American  Medical  and  Philosophicol 
Register,  vol.  iv.,  1814. 

8 


114  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

see  and  treat  a  number  of  cases,  and  in  some  instances  to 
perform  autopsies.  Dr.  Rush  refers  to  these  records  of 
Dr.  Mitchell's  work,  which  were  given  to  him  in  manu- 
script form  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  as  having  afforded 
him  much  valuable  aid  in  his  own  studies  of  the  disease. 
Dr.  Rush  sent  Dr.  Mitchell's  manuscript  to  Dr.  Hosack, 
of  New  York,  and  he  published  it  in  the  Medical  and 
Philosophical  Register  in  1814. 

In  1743  New  York  was  invaded  by  "the  bilious 
plague."  Out  of  a  population  of  between  seven  and 
eight  thousand,  two  hundred  and  seventeen  died  of  it. 
Cadwallader  Golden  says  it  occurred  in  the  portions  of 
the  city  which  were  built  on  swampy  ground  and  near 
the  wharves.  This  occasioned  the  first  official  report  of 
the  city's  mortality.     It  read  as  follows : 

"  New  York,  October  24,  1743.  By  the  Mayor  of  the  City.  An 
account  of  persons  buried  in  the  City  of  New  York : 

"  From  July  25  to  Sept.  25,  1743      From  Sept.  25  to  Oct.  22 

Grown    persons      114  Children  16 

Children  51  Grown    persons        36 

i6s  52 

165 

217 

"  And  I  do  find,  by  the  best  information  I  have  from  the  doctors, 
&c.,  of  this  city,  that  the  late  distemper  is  now  over. 

"John  Cruger,  Mayor." 

In  the  year  1762  yellow  fever  was  epidemic  in  Phila- 
delphia to  a  very  alarming  extent,  although  but  slight 
records  of  its  ravages  have  descended  to  us.  On  Septem- 
ber 7,  1793,  Dr.  John  Redman  read  an  account  of  the 
epidemic  as  he  remembered  it  to  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians of  Philadelphia,  and  in  1865  his  narrative  was  pub- 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  115 

lished  by  the  College.  At  the  time  when  he  read  his 
account  Philadelphia  was  again  suffering  from  an  epi- 
demic of  yellow  fever  of  much  more  serious  proportions 
than  the  one  which  he  described,  and  those  who  listened 
to  the  venerable  physician  must  have  done  so  with  pecu- 
liar interest  in  the  effort  to  gain  some  practical  points  of 
which  to  avail  themselves  in  their  present  state.  For  this 
reason,  too,  the  paper  dealt  very  largely  with  the  method 
of  treatment  employed  in  1762.  Dr.  Redman  treated  his 
first  case  of  yellow  fever  in  that  year  on  the  28th  of 
August,  but  he  modestly  suggests  that  physicians  of 
larger  practice,  such  as  "  Drs.  Bonds,"  might  have  seen 
cases  during  the  preceding  week.  By  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, however,  he  was  visiting  as  many  as  eighteen  or 
twenty  yellow  fever  patients  daily,  exclusive  of  convales- 
cents. From  that  date  the  epidemic  declined  until  the 
end  of  October,  when  it  had  practically  ceased.  The  epi- 
demic was  mostly  circumscribed  between  "  Pine  street 
northerly  to  three  or  four  squares  from  thence  southerly, 
and  extended  from  Front  or  Water  street  to  Third  or 
Fourth  street  westward."  Its  origin  was  traced  to  some 
"  small,  back  tenements,  forming  a  kind  of  court,  the 
entrance  to  which  was  by  two  narrow  alleys  from  Front 
and  Pine  Streets,  and  where  sailors  often  had  their  lodg- 
ings, to  which  a  sick  sailor  from  on  board  a  vessel  from 
the  Havannah  (where  it  then  raged)  was  brought  pri- 
vately after  night,  before  the  vessel  had  come  up  to  town, 
to  the  house  of  one  Leadbetter,  where  he  soon  died,  and 
was  secretly  buried;  and  I  believe  Leadbetter,  with  most 
of  his  family  and  many  others  in  that  court,  soon  after 
fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  distemper." 

Dr.  Redman  gives  a  very  vivid  picture  of  the  symp- 
toms presented  by  the  victims  of  the  disease.  In  his  treat- 
ment he  discarded  venesection.     He  says  that  he  had 


ii6  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

observed  when  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Kearsley,  Sr.,  during  the 
epidemic  of  1741  (2),  "  when  the  yellow  fever  was  first 
introduced  here,"  that  his  preceptor  got  better  results 
from  the  free  use  of  saline  purgatives  than  from  any 
other  treatment.  He  based  his  treatment  of  his  cases, 
therefore,  on  first  producing  thorough  purgation  with 
Glauber's  salts,  and  then  sustaining  the  patient  with 
cordials  or  wine,  accompanied  by  "an  antiemetic,  com- 
posed of  tartar  vitriolat  gr.  x,  and  a  half  or  whole  drop 
of  ol.  cinnamon  every  four  hours,  in  a  spoonfull  of  simple 
mint  or  cinnamon  water,  and  two  spoonfulls  of  a  strong 
decoction  of  snakeroot  every  two  hours."  As  soon  as  the 
gastro-intestinal  symptoms  were  brought  under  control 
he  induced  gentle  but  free  perspiration.  From  the  onset 
of  the  case  until  all  vomiting  had  ceased  he  kept  "  an 
anodyne  stomachic  plaister  of  theriaca"  applied  to  the 
pit  of  the  stomach.  He  did  not  use  much  Peruvian  bark 
(quinine),  as  he  was  fearful  of  its  irritating  effect  upon 
the  stomach.  He  recommended  pediluvia  for  headache 
and  frequent  sponging  with  vinegar.  In  order  to  lessen 
the  danger  of  contagion  he  had  a  bowl  of  vinegar  kept 
in  the  patient's  room  and  "  a  hot  iron  sometimes  put 
therein,"  and  upon  approaching  the  patient  it  was  his 
custom  to  first  dip  his  hand,  w4th  which  he  meant  to  feel 
the  pulse,  in  it  and  rub  some  of  the  vinegar  on  his  face. 
He  adds : 

"  This  was  the  chief  preventive  or  preservative  I  used,  besides 
great  temperance,  avoiding  to  visit  patients  fasting  if  possible,  and 
keeping  tobacco  in  my  mouth  while  in  the  sickroom,  not  from  any 
expectation  of  benefit  from  any  quality  in  the  tobacco,  except  that 
of  preventing  my  swallowing  my  saliva.  This  method  I  found  better 
than  a  constant  use  of  preservatives,  which  after  a  little  time  I  per- 
ceived to  affect  my  mind  with  such  fears  as  I  thought  were  likely 
to  render  me  more  susceptible  of  infection  than  the  omission  of 
them,  and  so  discarded  them  and  went  fearless  tho'  not  thoughtless 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  117 

wherever  called,   and   I   thank   God  have  been  preserved  harmless 
from  such  ills  to  this  day." 

He  mentions  that  in  no  instance  did  a  midwife  or  other 
person  in  attendance  on  a  confinement  case  contract  yel- 
low fever,  if  the  lying-in  woman  had  the  disease.  Of 
this  phenomenon  he  quaintly  says,  "  whether  this  be  from 
a  kind,  superintending  Providence  over  us,  exercised 
peculiarly  in  our  favour  in  the  execution  of  duty  on 
such  occasions,  let  every  one  judge,  and  practise  accord- 
ingly." 

Dr.  Redman's  whole  article  is  full  of  modest  references 
to  the  great  advances  in  medicine  made  since  the  time 
when  he  had  been  called  on  to  combat  the  disease,  and 
of  apologies  to  his  younger  brethren  for  intruding  his 
views  upon  them. 

The  only  other  account  by  a  contemporary  of  the  yel- 
low fever  of  1762  that  has  been  preserved  to  us  is  the 
brief  notes  of  it  which  were  kept  by  Benjamin  Rush,  who 
at  the  time  of  the  epidemic  was  but  seventeen  years  old 
and  in  the  midst  of  his  apprenticeship  to  Dr.  Redman. 
These  notes  he  published  in  his  account  of  the  yellow 
fever  of  1793.    They  were  as  follows: 

"  In  the  year  1762,  in  the  months  of  August,  September,  October, 
November,  and  December,  the  bilious  yellow  fever  prevailed  in  Phila- 
delphia, after  a  very  hot  summer,  and  spread  like  a  plague,  carrying 
off  daily  for  some  time,  upwards  of  twenty  persons.  The  patients 
were  generally  seized  with  rigors,  which  were  succeeded  with  a 
violent  fever,  and  pains  in  the  head  and  back.  The  pulse  was  full, 
and  sometimes  irregular.  The  eyes  were  inflamed,  and  had  a  yellow- 
ish cast,  and  a  vomiting  almost  always  attended. 

"  The  3rd,  5th,  and  7th  days  were  mostly  critical,  and  the  disease 
generally  terminated  on  one  of  them,  in  life  or  death. 

"  An  eruption  on  the  3rd  or  7th  day  over  the  body,  proved  salu- 
tary. 

"  An  excessive  heat,  and  burning  about  the  region  of  the  liver, 
with  cold  extremities,  portended  death  to  be  at  hand." 


ii8  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

The  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  which  ravaged  the  city 
of  Philadelphia  in  the  autumn  of  1793  was  again  studied 
and  written  of  by  the  same  great  observer.^  It  is  to  his 
carefully  kept  records  that  we  are  indebted  for  much  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  epidemic. 

Some  isolated  cases,  which  Dr.  Rush  was  disposed  to 
consider  as  sporadic  instances  of  the  disease,  made  their 
appearance  early  in  August.  Finding,  however,  in  con- 
versation with  Drs.  Foulke  and  Hodge,  that  they  likewise 
had  seen  a  number  of  cases,  he  became  convinced  that 
the  fever  was  becoming  epidemic.  He  attributed  its 
source  to  a  quantity  of  damaged  coffee  which  had  been 
thrown  out  on  a  wharf  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  house  of  one  of  his  patients  and  had  there  decom- 
posed. The  reasons  that  lead  him  to  this  conclusion  he 
advances  as  follows :  ^ 

"  A  quantity  of  damaged  coffee,  was  exposed  at  a  time  (July  the 
2Sth)  and  in  a  situation  (on  a  wharf,  and  in  a  dock)  which  favored 
its  putrefaction,  and  exhalation.  Its  smell  was  highly  putrid  and 
offensive,  insomuch  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  houses  in  Water  and 
Front  Streets,  who  were  near  it,  were  obliged  in  the  hottest  weather 
to  exclude  it,  by  shutting  their  doors  and  windows.  Even  persons, 
who  only  walked  along  those  streets,  complained  of  an  intolerable 
fcEter,  which  upon  enquiry  was  constantly  traced  to  the  putrid  coffee. 
It  should  not  surprize  us,  that  this  seed,  so  inoffensive  in  its  natural 
state,  should  produce,  after  its  putrefaction,  a  violent  fever.     The 

*  An  Account  of  the  Bilious  remitting  Yellow  Fever  as  it  appeared 
in  the  City  of  Philadelphia  in  the  year  1793,  by  Benjamin  Rush, 
Phila.  1794;  also  see  Minutes  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Committee 
appointed  on  the  14th  September,  1793,  by  the  Citizens  of  Phila- 
delphia, the  Northern  Liberties  and  the  District  of  Southwark,  to 
attend  to  and  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the  afiflicted  with  the  Malig- 
nant Fever,  prevalent  in  the  City  and  its  vicinity,  with  an  appendix. 
Philadelphia,  1794. 

°  An  Enquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  late  Epidemic  Fever  in  Phila- 
delphia;  in  a  Letter  to  Dr.  John  Redman,  from  Doctor  Benjamin 
Rush.     Philadelphia,  1793. 


Dr.  James  Hitchinsun. 


I)K.    Ar.AM    KlHN.  I)K.   John    Ki.i.man. 

(Reproduced  from  Morton's  "History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  119 

records  of  medicine  furnish  instances  of  similar  fevers  being  pro- 
duced, by  the  putrefaction  of  many  other  vegetable  substances.  .  .  . 
The  rapid  progress  of  the  fever  from  Water  Street,  and  the  courses 
through  which  it  travelled  into  other  parts  of  the  city,  afford  a  strong 
evidence  that  it  was  at  first  propagated  chiefly  by  exhalation  from 
the  putrid  coflfee.  It  is  remarkable  that  it  passed  first  through  those 
alleys  and  streets  which  were  in  the  course  of  the  winds  that  blew 
across  the  dock  and  wharf  where  the  coffee  lay,  and  that  persons 
were  affected  at  a  much  greater  distance  from  Water  Street  by  that 
means,  than  was  afterwards  known  by  means  of  the  contagion  which 
was  generated  by  infected  persons. 

"  Many  persons  who  had  worked,  or  even  visited  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  exhalation  from  the  coffee,  early  in  the  month  of 
August,  were  indisposed  afterwards  with  sickness,  puking,  and 
yellow  sweat,  long  before  the  air  of  Water  Street  was  so  much  im- 
pregnated with  the  contagion,  as  to  produce  such  effects,  and  several 
patients  whom  I  attended  in  the  yellow  fever  declared  to  me,  or  to 
their  friends,  that  their  indisposition  began  exactly  at  the  time  they 
inhaled  the  offensive  effluvia  of  the  coffee." 

Dr.  Rush  expressed  his  opinion  to  many  of  his  fellow- 
practitioners  and  citizens  that  yellow  fever  was  present 
in  the  city  in  epidemic  form.  For  this  warning  he  was 
the  victim  of  much  ridicule  and  contempt.  However, 
the  governor  of  Pennsylvania  ordered  Dr.  James  Hutch- 
inson, who  was  "  inspector  of  sickly  vessels,"  to  inquire 
as  to  whether  an  epidemic  did  exist.  He  wrote  to  Dr. 
Rush,  who  in  return  told  him  of  a  number  of  instances 
in  which  he  had  seen  cases  of  the  disease.  On  August 
28,  1793,  Dr.  Hutchinson  published  the  following  notice 
in  the  American  Daily  Advertiser : 

"  The  governor  having  directed  an  enquiry  to  ascertain  the  facts, 
respecting  the  existence  of  a  contagious  fever  in  the  city,  and  the 
probable  means  of  removing  it,  Dr.  Hutchinson,  the  physician  of  the 
port,  has  made  the  following  statement  upon  the  subject,  in  a  letter  to 
Nathaniel  Falconer,  Esq.,  health-oflScer  of  the  port  of  Philadelphia : 

"  Dear  Sir, 

"  Immediately  on  the  receipt  of  your  letter,  with  the  enclosure 
from  the  governor,  stating  that  a  considerable  alarm  had  taken  place. 


I20  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

in  consequence  of  the  appearance  of  an  infectious  disorder  in  this 
city,  I  endeavoured  to  take  measures  to  ascertain  the  facts,  relative 
to  the  existence  of  such  disease ;  for  this  purpose  I  wrote  to  such  of 
my  brethren,  who  had  been  called  on  to  attend  persons  supposed  to 
have  been  infected,  and  trom  their  answers  as  well  as  from  my  own 
observations,  I  am  convinced  that  a  malignant  fever  has  lately  made 
its  appearance  in  Water-street  and  in  Kensington ;  principally  in 
Water-street  between  Arch  and  Race-streets.  This  part  of  the  city 
I  examined  personally  on  Thursday  and  Friday  last,  and  found  that 
east  of  Front-street,  and  between  Arch  and  Race-streets,  sixty-seven 
persons  were  diseased,  many  with  the  malignant  fever.  Thirteen  of 
them  are  since  dead,  and  numbers  remain  ill.  For  a  while  this  fever 
was  confined  to  the  above  mentioned  part  of  the  city,  but  the  dis- 
order is  spreading,  and  now  appears  in  other  places,  so  that  several 
are  affected  in  other  parts  of  Water-street,  some  in  Second-street, 
some  in  Vine-street,  some  in  Carter's  alley,  some  in  other  streets ; 
but  in  most  cases  the  contagion  can  be  traced  to  Water-street.  Dr. 
Say,  who  has  attended  more  in  this  disease  than  any  other  physician, 
informs  me  that  he  first  observed  it  in  Kensington,  on  the  fifth  or 
sixth  of  this  month ;  that  he  did  not  perceive  it  in  Water-street,  until 
about  the  twelfth  or  fifteenth,  but  that  on  its  appearance  in  the  latter 
place,  the  whole  neighborhood  was  soon  affected.  He  further 
informs  me,  that  he  has  at  this  time  upwards  of  40  patients,  which  he 
supposes  to  be  infected ;  and  that  he  has  lost  about  20  patients  in  this 
disease  since  its  first  appearance.  As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascer- 
tain, the  number  of  persons  who  have  died  altogether  of  this  fever, 
amounts  to  40  or  thereabouts." 

"  The  general  opinion  both  of  the  medical  gentlemen,  and  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Water-street  is,  that  the  contagion  originated  from 
some  damaged  coffee,  or  other  putrefied  vegetable  and  animal  mat- 
ters ;  and  on  enquiry,  it  appears,  that  on  a  few  wharfs  above  Arch- 
street,  there  was  not  only  a  quantity  of  damaged  coffee,  which  was 
extremely  offensive,  exposed  for  some  time,  but  also  some  putrid 
hides,  and  other  putrid  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  Should, 
however.  Dr.  Say's  opinion  be  well  founded,  that  he  observed  the 
disease  in  Kensington  previously  to  its  appearance  in  Water-street, 
this  cannot  be  the  original  cause  of  the  contagion.  It  does  not  appear 
to  be  an  imported  disease ;  for  I  have  learned  of  no  foreigners  or 
sailors  that  have  hitherto  been  infected,  nor  has  it  been  found  in 
any  lodging  houses,  but  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  principally  confined 

"  Dr.  Rush  takes  issue  with  the  last  statement,  expressing  his 
opinion  that  the  number  at  that  time  amounted  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  121 

to  the  inhabitants  of  Water-street,  and  such  as  have  done  business, 
or  had  considerable  intercourse,  with  that  part  of  the  city.  The 
Dispensary  physicians  tell  me,  that  out  of  the  large  number  of  sick, 
now  under  the  care  of  that  charitable  institution,  they  have  had  but 
one  person  afflicted  with  this  fever.  In  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
the  disorder  does  not  exist. 

"  The  disease  appears  differently  in  different  persons ;  it  puts  on 
all  the  intermediate  forms  between  a  mild  remittent  and  the  worst 
species  of  Typhus  Gravior.  I  enclose  you  a  copy 'of  the  proceedings 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,  which  contains  their  recommendation 
of  the  means  for  preventing  the  future  progress  of  the  disease. 
"  I  am  with  great  respect 

"  Your  most  obedient  servant 

"  J.  Hutchinson. 
"  Philadelphia 
August  27th,  1793" 

Many  attributed  the  disease  to  contagion  brought  by 
the  brig  "  Mary,"  Captain  Rush,  from  Cape  Francois,  but 
this  idea  was  indignantly  combated  by  Dr.  Deveze,  who 
had  been  a  passenger  on  the  vessel.  He  says  that  on  the 
arrival  of  the  vessel  they  had  but  three  cases  of  illness 
aboard,  "  a  woman  that  had  miscarried  during  the  voyage, 
and  who  afterwards  died  of  dropsy  at  Bush-Hill,  and  two 
ladies  now  in  good  health,  and  who  had  never  the  least 
symptom  of  the  disorder  that  spread  destruction  through 
this  city." 

Dr.  Isaac  Cathrall  and  many  others  held  that  the  dis- 
ease had  been  imported  by  the  French  privateer  "  Sans 
Culottes,"  which  had  just  put  into  Philadelphia  with  a 
prize,  the  "  Flora."  Her  crew  was  largely  made  up  of 
men  shipped  from  a  vessel  she  had  captured  which  had 
been  in  infected  ports,  and  on  landing  in  Philadelphia  they 
lodged  between  Mulberry  and  Sassafras  Streets,  in  a 
house  in  which  the  earliest  undoubted  cases  of  the  disease 
developed.  Dr.  Deveze,  however,  says  "  unless  we  dis- 
believe the  captain  and  surgeon  of  this  vessel,  we  must 
be  convinced  that  neither  the  privateer,  or  the  two  prizes 


122  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

she  brought  into  port,  had  any  sick  on  board."  Deveze 
held  that  the  disease  originated  from  atmospheric  con- 
ditions and  was  not  contagious. 

The  College  of  Physicians  held  a  special  meeting  on 
the  25th  of  August  to  consider  the  best  method  of  check- 
ing the  progress  of  the  disease.  A  committee,  consisting 
of  Drs.  Rush,  Hutchinson,  Say,  and  Wistar,  was  ap- 
pointed to  draw  up  some  directions  for  publication  in  the 
newspapers  as  a  guide  to  the  people,  and  it  was  agreed 
to  hold  a  meeting  every  Monday  at  four  p.m.  to  discuss 
the  progress  of  the  epidemic.  The  Committee  drew  up 
the  following  directions : 

"  Philadelphia,  August  26,  1793. 

"  The  college  of  physicians  having  taken  into  consideration  the 
malignant  and  contagious  fever  that  now  prevails  in  this  city,  have 
agreed  to  recommend  to  their  fellow  citizens  the  following  means  of 
preventing  its  progress. 

"  1st.  That  all  unnecessary  intercourse  should  be  avoided  with 
such  persons  as  are  infected  by  it. 

"  2nd.  To  place  a  mark  upon  the  door  or  window  of  such  houses 
as  have  any  infected  persons  in  it. 

"  3rd.  To  place  the  persons  infected  in  the  centre  of  large  and 
airy  rooms,  in  beds  without  curtains,  and  to  pay  the  strictest  regard 
to  cleanliness,  by  frequently  changing  their  body  and  bed  linen,  also 
by  removing,  as  speedily  as  possible,  all  offensive  matter  from  their 
rooms. 

"  4th.  To  provide  a  large  and  airy  hospital  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  city,  for  the  reception  of  such  poor  persons  as  cannot  be 
accommodated  with  the  above  advantages  in  private  houses. 

"  5th.  To  put  a  stop  to  the  tolling  of  bells. 

"  6th.  To  bury  such  persons  as  die  of  this  fever  in  carriages,  and 
in  as  private  a  manner  as  possible. 

"  7th.  To  keep  the  streets  and  wharfs  of  the  city  as  clean  as 
possible.  —  As  the  contagion  of  the  disease  may  be  taken  into  the 
body  and  pass  out  of  it,  without  producing  the  fever,  imless  it  be 
rendered  active  by  some  occasional  cause,  the  following  means  should 
be  attended  to,  to  prevent  the  contagion  being  excited  into  action  in 
the  body. 

"  8th.  To  avoid  all  fatigue  of  body  and  mind. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  123 

"  9th.  To  avoid  standing  or  sitting  in  the  sun ;  also  in  a  current 
of  air,  or  in  the  evening  air. 

"  loth.  To  accommodate  the  dress  to  the  weather ;  and  to  exceed 
rather  in  warm  than  in  cool  clothing. 

"  nth.  To  avoid  intemperance,  but  to  use  fermented  liquors,  such 
as  wine,  beer,  and  cyder,  in  moderation. 

"  The  College  conceives  fires  to  be  very  inefifectual,  if  not  danger- 
ous means  of  checking  the  progress  of  this  fever.  They  have  reason 
to  place  more  dependence  upon  the  burning  of  gun-powder.  The 
benefits  of  vinegar  and  camphor,  are  confined  chiefly  to  infected 
rooms,  and  they  cannot  be  used  too  frequently  upon  handkerchiefs, 
or  in  smelling  bottles,  by  persons  whose  duty  calls  them  to  visit  or 
attend  the  sick. 

"  Signed  by  order  of  the  college 

"  William  Shippen,  Jun., 

Vice-President. 
Samuel  P.  Griffitts, 

Secretary." 

Carey '^  gives  an  amusing  account  of  the  results  pro- 
duced by  tlie  publication  of  the  advice  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  in  the  newspapers : 

"  In  consequence  of  this  advice  the  bells  were  immediately  stopped 
from  tolling.  The  expedience  of  this  measure  was  obvious ;  as 
they  had  before  been  almost  constantly  ringing  the  whole  day,  so  as 
to  terrify  those  in  health,  and  drive  the  sick,  as  far  as  the  influence 
of  imagination  could  produce  that  effect,  to  their  graves.  An  idea 
had  gone  abroad,  that  the  burning  of  fires  in  the  streets,  would 
have  a  tendency  to  purify  the  air,  and  arrest  the  progress  of  the 
disorder.  The  people  had,  therefore,  almost  every  night  large  fires 
lighted  at  the  corners  of  the  streets.  The  29th,  the  Mayor,  con- 
formably with  the  opinion  of  the  college  of  physicians,  published  a 
proclamation,  forbidding  this  practice.  As  a  substitute,  many  had 
recourse  to  the  firing  of  guns,  which  they  imagined  was  a  certain 
preventive  of  the  disorder.  This  was  carried  so  far,  and  attended 
with  such  danger,  that  it  was  forbidden  by  an  ordinance  of  the 
Mayor." 


'  Brief  Account  of  the  Malignant  Fever  which  prevailed  in  Phila- 
delphia in  the  year  1793. 


124  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Dr.  Rush  published  in  the  American  Daily  Advertiser 
of  August  29  a  reiteration  of  his  opinion  that  the  disease 
originated  from  the  decomposing  coffee.  The  mayor  had 
ordered  its  removal  from  the  wharf,  but  Dr.  Foulke 
claimed  that  the  work  was  not  thoroughly  done. 

Dr.  Rush  gives  in  his  "  Account"  a  curious  summing 
up  as  to  how  the  contagion  resulted  in  the  fever,  some- 
times from  the  effects  of  the  "  indirect  debility"  which  it 
produced,  sometimes  by  "  direct  debility.''  Thus,  under 
the  first  heading  he  mentions  cases  which  occurred  in 
persons,  while  the  contagion  was  in  the  air,  who  became 
fatigued,  or  overheated,  or  who  were  intemperate  in  food 
or  drink.  He  then  goes  on  to  mention  as  producing 
"  direct  debility,"  and  thus  acting  as  exciting  causes  of 
the  disease,  fear,  grief,  cold,  sleep,  and  immoderate 
evacuations. 

The  premonitory  symptoms  of  the  fever  were  "  costive- 
ness,  a  dull  pain  in  the  right  side,  defect  of  appetite, 
flatulency,  perverted  taste,  heat  in  the  stomach,  giddiness 
or  pain  in  the  head,  a  dull  —  watery  —  brilliant,  yellow 
or  red  eye,  dim  and  imperfect  vision,  a  hoarseness  or 
slight  sorethroat,  low  spirits,  or  unusual  vivacity,  a 
moisture  on  the  hands,  a  disposition  to  sweat  at  nights, 
or  after  moderate  exercise,  or  a  sudden  suppression  of 
night  sweats."  These  symptoms  lasted  over  a  period  of 
several  days.  Sometimes  they  were  absent,  the  onset 
being  sudden.  When  the  disease  was  fully  developed. 
Dr.  Rush  expatiates  on  the  great  difference  in  the  counte- 
nance from  that  of  a  person  suffering  from  an  ordinary 
"  bilious  fever."  He  speaks  particularly  of  the  conges- 
tion of  the  eyes,  or  their  jaundiced  appearance.  Dr. 
Rush  has  left  us  the  most  vivid  and  interesting  account 
of  all  the  various  symptoms  which  manifested  themselves 
in  the  many  patients  who  were  under  his  care.    He  analyzes 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  125 

these  and  points  out  how  difficult  the  diagnosis  was  in 
many  of  them.  Persons  of  all  ages  were  attacked  by  the 
disease,  but  it  was  most  common  in  those  between  the  ages 
of  fourteen  and  forty.  Dr.  Rush  saw  a  case  in  a  child  of 
ten  weeks.  Men  were  more  frequently  the  victims  than 
women.  Dr.  Rush  remarked  that  the  refugees  from  the 
French  West  Indies,  of  whom  there  were  large  numbers 
in  the  city,  uniformly  escaped.  Dr.  Lining  had  previously 
pointed  out  the  fact  that  negroes  were  what  we  would 
now  call  immune  from  the  disease.  Dr.  Rush  called  the 
attention  of  the  public  to  that  fact,  and  this  led  to  the 
insertion  of  the  following  notice  in  the  Mail,  addressed  to 
Mr.  Claypole,  its  printer : 

"Sir 

"  It  is  with  peculiar  satisfaction  that  I  communicate  to  the  public, 
through  your  paper,  that  the  African  Society,  touched  with  the  dis- 
tresses which  arise  from  the  present  dangerous  disorder,  have  volun- 
tarily undertaken  to  furnish  nurses  to  attend  the  afflicted ;  and  that 
by  applying  to  Absalom  Jones  and  William  Gray,  both  members  of 
that  society,  they  may  be  supplied 

"  Matth.  Clarkson, 

"  Mayor. 
"  September  6th 
1793" 

Dr.  Rush,  however,  had  shortly  to  announce  that  this 
observation  by  Dr.  Lining  was  at  fault,  at  least  as  re- 
garded the  negroes  of  Philadelphia,  as  many  of  them 
while  performing  their  labors  as  nurses  fell  ill  of  the  dis- 
ease and  died  with  it.  Dr.  Rush  thought  that  butchers, 
house-painters,  grave-diggers,  and  scavengers  were 
exempt  from  the  disease  in  greater  proportion  than  those 
who  followed  other  occupations.  The  weather  through- 
out the  duration  of  the  epidemic  was  very  hot  and  sultry. 
No  rain  fell  from  the  25th  of  August  to  the  15th  of  Octo- 
ber, with  the  exception  of  a  few  drops  on  the  9th  of  Sep- 


126  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

tember  and  the  12th  of  October,  not  sufficient,  Dr.  Rush 
says,  to  lay  the  dust. 

Dr.  Rush  saw  cases  of  the  fever  in  persons  whom  he 
had  previously  had  in  his  care  during  the  epidemic  of 
1762. 

The  epidemic  increased  at  a  rapid  rate  during  the  latter 
part  of  August  and  the  first  part  of  September.  This 
led  to  the  publication  of  the  following  notice  in  the  news- 
papers :  ^ 

"  To  THE  Benevolent  Citizens. 

"  Those  of  the  overseers  of  the  poor,  who  attend  to  the  care  of  the 
unfortunate  now  labouring  under  the  prevalent  malignant  disorder 
are  almost  overcome  with  the  fatigue  which  they  undergoe,  and 
require  immediate  assistance.  This,  it  is  hoped,  may  be  found  among 
the  benevolent  citizens,  who  actuated  by  a  willingness  to  contribute 
their  aid  in  the  present  distress,  will  offer  themselves  as  volunteers 
to  support  the  active  overseers  in  the  discharge  of  what  they  have 
undertaken.  For  which  purpose  those  who  are  thus  humanely  dis- 
posed, are  requested  to  apply  to  the  Mayor,  who  will  point  out  to 
them  how  they  may  be  useful. 

"  September  loth  1793." 

At  a  largely  attended  meeting  at  the  City  Hall  on  the 
1 2th  of  September  the  following  persons  volunteered  to 
assist  the  overseers, — namely,  Samuel  Wetherill,  Israel 
Israel,  Thomas  Wistar,  Andrew  Adgate,  Caleb  Lownes, 
Henry  Deforest,  Thomas  Peters,  Joseph  Inskeep,  Stephen 
Girard,  and  John  Mason.  They  were  deputed  to  investi- 
gate the  condition  of  the  sick  poor  and  report  on  the 
measures  best  adapted  for  their  relief. 

A  large  hospital  for  the  accommodation  of  the  sick 
was  fitted  up  in  the  mansion  of  William  Hamilton,  who 
at  that  time  was  abroad.  His  estate  was  known  as  Bush 
Hill,  and  composed  the  land  which  would  now  be  bounded 

*  Minutes  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Committee  appointed  on  the 
14th  of  September,  1793,  etc.     Philadelphia,  1794. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  127 

approximately  by  Vine  Street,  Fairmount  Avenue, 
Twelfth  and  Nineteenth  Streets.  A  large  barn  and 
stable  as  well  as  the  mansion  were  used  for  hospital  pur- 
poses. The  property  was  then  about  a  mile  from  the 
city.  The  tenants  who  occupied  it  in  the  absence  of 
Mr.  Hamilton  made  some  objection,  but  on  August  31 
it  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  city  authorities. 
Patients  suffering  from  yellow  fever  had  hitherto  been 
taken  to  the  Circus,  which  had  been  used  as  an  exhibition 
place  by  Mr.  Ricketts,  the  equestrian  performer.  There 
were  four  patients  in  the  Circus  who  were  removed  to 
Bush  Hill. 

Israel  Israel,  Thomas  Wistar,  and  Caleb  Lownes  were 
appointed  a  committee  to  look  into  the  management  of 
this  Bush  Hill  Hospital.  They  reported  at  a  meeting  of 
the  citizens  on  September  14,  1793,  "that  the  Hospital 
is  without  order  or  arrangement,  far  from  being  clean, 
and  stands  in  immediate  need  of  several  qualified  persons 
to  begin  and  establish  the  necessary  arrangements. 
There  are  five  or  six  female  attendants ;  but  none  quali- 
fied for  the  proper  management  of  the  sick.  It  is  attended 
by  four  Physicians,  viz.  Doctors  Cathral,  Physick,  An- 
nan, and  Leib, — the  latter  is  indisposed  and  unable  to 
attend.  That  there  are  immediately  wanted,  a  person 
qualified  to  arrange  and  manage  a  Hospital,  as  steward, 
a  person  qualified  to  act  as  barber  and  bleeder,  and 
eight  nurses."  The  meeting  then  appointed  a  citizens' 
committee  to  take  the  necessary  measures  to  rehabilitate 
the  hospital  and  to  furnish  relief  to  the  sick.  It  con- 
sisted of 

Matthew  Clarkson,  the  mayor  of  the  city. 
Samuel  Wetherill,  John    Connelly, 

Jon.   D.    Sergeant,  Jacob  Weaver, 

Caleb  Lownes,  John   McCulloch, 


128  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Israel  Israel,  Joseph  Inskeep, 

Thomas    Wistar,  William  Robinson, 

Thomas  Harrison,  Jacob  Whitman, 

Stephen  Girard,  Henry  Deforest, 

Joseph  Russell,  John  Letchworth, 

Andrew  Adgate,  James    Swain, 

Mathew  Carey,  James   Sharswood, 

Thomas  Savery,  John  Haworth, 

William  Clifton,  James   Kerr, 

Samuel   Benge,  Peter  Helm. 

On  September  i6  the  newly-appointed  managers  of 
Bush  Hill  reported  on  the  condition  of  affairs  which  they 
found  on  taking  charge  of  and  investigating  the  man- 
agement of  that  hospital.     Carey  says, — 

"A  profligate,  abandoned  set  of  nurses  and  attendants  (hardly 
any  of  good  character  could  at  that  time  be  procured,)  rioted  on 
the  provisions  and  comforts  prepared  for  the  sick,  who  (unless  at 
the  hours  when  the  doctors  attended)  were  left  almost  entirely 
destitute  of  every  assistance.  The  sick,  the  dying,  and  the  dead, 
were  indiscriminately  mingled  together.  The  ordure,  and  other 
evacuations  of  the  sick,  were  allowed  to  remain  in  the  most  offen- 
sive state  imaginable,  not  the  smallest  appearance  of  order  or 
regularity  existed.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  great  human  slaughter-house, 
where  numerous  victims  were  immolated  at  the  altar  of  riot  and 
intemperance.  No  wonder,  then,  that  a  general  dread  of  the  place 
prevailed  through  the  city,  and  that  a  removal  to  it  was  considered 
as  the  seal  of  death.  In  consequence,  there  were  various  instances 
oi  sick  persons  locking  their  rooms,  and  resisting  every  attempt 
to  carry  them  away.  At  length,  the  poor  were  so  much  afraid  of 
being  sent  to  Bushhill,  that  they  would  not  acknowledge  their  ill- 
ness, until  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  conceal  it." 

They  proceeded  promptly  to  introduce  order  into  this 
chaos,  and  soon  succeeded  in  overcoming  the  popular 
prejudice  against  the  hospital  so  that  people  desired  to 
be  taken  there  as  soon  as  their  illness  developed,  as  they 
knew  they  would  be  suitably  cared  for. 

Stephen  Girard  and  Peter  Helm  subsequently  volun- 
teered to  act  as  superintendents  of  the  hospital,  and  too 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  129 

much  credit  can  never  be  given  them  for  the  enormous 
labors  they  so  charitably  performed.  Dr.  Deveze  offered 
his  services  as  a  physician,  and  was  assigned  to  medical 
duty  at  the  hospital.  Nine  female  and  ten  male  nurses 
were  employed  in  the  wards.  Drs.  Physick,  Cathral, 
Leib,  and  Annan  made  the  following  propositions  as 
regarded  their  services:  ist,  that  the  physicians  would 
attend  the  hospital  at  eleven  a.m.  daily;  2d,  that  they 
should  be  paid  two  guineas  a  visit ;  3d,  Mr.  Graham  and 
two  assistants  should  be  appointed  apothecaries ;  and, 
4th,  that  they  should  have  the  entire  direction  of  the 
hospital.  To  this  the  managers  agreed  with  the  exception 
that  they  reserved  a  room  for  the  use  of  Dr.  Deveze. 
Subsequently  there  appears  to  have  been  much  complaint 
of  irregularity  of  attendance  on  the  part  of  the  physi- 
cians, which  resulted  in  the  division  of  the  hospital  into 
three  parts, — one  under  the  supervision  of  Dr.  Physick, 
another  under  that  of  Dr.  Deveze,  and  the  third  under 
that  of  Dr.  Leib.  For  some  reason  this  caused  dissatis- 
faction among  the  physicians,  and  they  all  resigned  ex- 
cept Dr.  Deveze.  Dr.  Benjamin  Duffield  volunteered  to 
help  him  out  and  was  promptly  appointed. 

Dr.  Jean  Deveze  was  a  French  army  surgeon  who  was 
chief  physician  to  the  French  military  hospital  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  has  left  us  a  most  interesting  account  of  his 
experience  during  the  epidemic.® 

Mathew  Carey's  description  of  the  terrible  condition 
of  Philadelphia  during  this  visitation  is  most  vivid : 

*  An  Enquiry  into,  and  Observations  upon  the  Cause  and  Effects 
of  the  Epidemic  Disease,  which  raged  in  Philadelphia  from  the 
Month  of  August  till  toward  the  middle  of  December,  1793.  By 
Jean  Deveze,  Master  in  Surgery,  from  Cape  Francais,  Physician  of 
the  Hospital  at  Bush-Hill,  Surgeon-Major  and  Principal  Physician 
of  the  Military  Hospital  established  by  the  French  Republic  at 
Philadelphia,  1794. 

9 


I30 


THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 


"  Most  of  those  who  could  by  any  means  make  it  convenient, 
fled  from  the  city.  Of  those  who  remained,  many  shut  themselves 
up  in  their  houses,  being  afraid  to  walk  the  streets.  The  smoke 
of  tobacco  being  regarded  as  a  preventive,  many  persons,  even 
women  and  small  boys,  had  segars  almost  constantly  in  their 
mouths.  Others,  placing  full  confidence  in  garlic,  chewed  it  almost 
the  whole  day;  some  kept  it  in  their  pockets  and  shoes.  Many 
were  afraid  to  allow  the  barbers  or  hair-dressers  to  come  near 
them  having  shaved  the  dead,  and  many  having  engaged  as  bleeders. 
Some  who  carried  their  caution  pretty  far,  bought  lancets  for  them- 
selves, not  daring  to  allow  themselves  to  be  bled  with  the  lancets 
of  the  bleeders.  Many  houses  were  scarcely  a  moment  in  the  day, 
free  from  the  smell  of  gunpowder,  burned  tobacco,  nitre,  sprinkled 
vinegar,  &c.  Some  of  the  Churches  were  almost  deserted,  and 
others  wholly  closed.  The  coffee-house  was  shut  up,  as  was  the 
city  library,  and  most  of  the  public  offices  —  three,  out  of  the 
four,  daily  papers  were  discontinued,  as  were  some  of  the  others. 
Many  devoted  no  small  portion  of  their  time  to  purifying,  scour- 
ing, and  whitewashing  their  rooms.  Those  who  ventured  abroad, 
had  handkerchiefs  or  sponges,  iinpregnated  with  vinegar  or  cam- 
phor, at  their  noses,  or  smelling-bottles  full  of  thieves  vinegar.'" 
Others  carried  pieces  of  tarred  rope  in  their  hands  or  pockets,  or 
camphor  bags  tied  round  their  necks.  The  corpses  of  the  most 
respectable  citizens,  even  of  those  who  had  not  died  of  the  epi- 
demic were  carried  to  the  grave  on  the  shafts  of  a  chair,  the  horse 
driven  by  a  negro,  unattended  by  a  friend  or  relation,  and  without 
any  sort  of  ceremony.  People  uniformly  and  hastily  shifted  their 
course  at  the  sight  of  a  hearse  coming  towards  them.  Many  never 
walked  on  the  foot-path,  but  went  into  the  middle  of  the  street, 
to  avoid  being  infected  in  passing  houses  wherein  people  had  died. 
Acquaintances  and  friends  avoided  each  other  in  the  streets,  and 
only  signified  their  regard  by  a  cold  nod.  The  old  custom  of 
shaking  hands,  fell  into  such  general  disuse,  that  many  shrunk  back 
with  affright  at  even  the  offer  of  the  hand.  A  person  with  crape 
or  any  appearance  of  mourning,  was  shunned  like  a  leper.  And 
many  valued  themselves  highly  on  the  skill  and  address  with  which 
they  got  to  windward  of  every  person  whom  they  met." 


"  Thieves'  vinegar,  or  the  vinegar  of  the  four  thieves,  was  a 
preparation  the  composition  of  which  was  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  four  young  men  during  the  plague  at  Marseilles.  It 
was  said  to  have  rendered  them  immune  from  the  disease  and  enabled 
them  to  rob  the  sick  w^hile  pretending  to  serve  as  nurses. 


/ 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  131 


This  terror  gave  rise  to  the  greatest  cruelty  and  lack 
of  feeling.  Many  persons  were  abandoned  by  their 
nearest  relatives  and  friends.  Bodies  were  frequently 
found  lying  in  houses  which  had  been  deserted  by  all 
other  dwellers  in  them.  Women  died  in  childbirth  be- 
cause no  one  would  render  them  assistance  in  their  hour 
of  need.  Wives  deserted  their  husbands,  fathers  their 
children,  and  children  their  parents.  Carey  bears  testi- 
mony, however,  to  the  noble  behavior  of  some  citizens, 
whose  names  should  be  forever  perpetuated  on  a  roll  of 
honor.  He  particularly  praises  Joseph  Inskeep,  saying, 
"  Numerous  are  the  instances  of  men  restored,  by  his 
kind  cares  and  attention,  to  their  families,  from  the  very 
jaws  of  death.  In  various  cases  has  he  been  obliged  to 
put  dead  bodies  into  coffins,  when  the  relations  had  fled 
from  the  mournful  and  dangerous  office."  He  makes 
honorable  mention  of  Andrew  Adgate,  Job  Jones,  James 
Wilson,  Jacob  Tomkins,  and  Daniel  Offley.  The  clergy 
in  many  instances  showed  the  noblest  spirit.  Carey  refers 
to  the  labors  of  the  following  ministers  who  remained 
at  their  posts, — viz.,  Messrs.  Fleming,  Graessel,  Wink- 
house,  Henry  Helmuth,  C.  V.  Keating,  Ustick,  and 
Dickens.  Other  persons  who  worked  and  spent  their 
money  liberally  to  aid  their  unfortunate  fellow-citizens 
were  Stephen  Girard,  Samuel  Robeson,  Thomas  Allibone, 
Lambert  Wilmer,  Levi  Hollingsworth,  John  Barker, 
Hannah  Paine,  John  Hutchinson,  Magnus  Miller, 
Samuel  Coates,  and  John  Connelly. 

Dr.  Rush  also  gives  us  an  insight  into  the  awful  horror 
that  fell  over  the  city  in  those  terrible  days.  He  writes 
as  follows : 

"  A  cheerful  countenance  was  scarcely  to  be  seen  in  the  city  for 
six  weeks.  I  recollect  once  in  entering  the  house  of  a  poor  man, 
to  have  met  a  child  of  two  years  old  that  smiled  in  my  face.     I 


132 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


was  strangely  afifected  with  this  sight  (so  discordant  to  my  feelings 
and  the  state  of  the  city)  before  I  recollected  the  age  and  ignorance 
of  the  child.  I  was  confined  the  next  day  by  an  attack  of  the  fever, 
and  was  sorry  to  hear  upon  my  recovery,  that  the  father  and  mother 
of  this  little  creature  died,  a  few  days  after  my  last  visit  to  them. 

"  The  streets  everywhere  discovered  marks  of  the  distress  that 
pervaded  the  city.  More  than  one  half  the  houses  were  shut  up, 
although  not  more  than  one  third  of  the  inhabitants  had  fled  into 
the  country.  In  walking  for  many  hundred  yards,  few  persons 
were  met,  except  such  as  were  in  quest  of  a  physician,  a  nurse, 
a  bleeder,  or  the  men  who  buried  the  dead.  The  hearse  alone  kept 
up  the  remembrance  of  carriages  or  carts  in  the  streets.  Funeral 
processions  were  laid  aside.  A  black  man,  leading  or  driving  a 
horse,  with  a  corpse  on  a  pair  of  chair  wheels,  with  now  and  then 
a  half  dozen  relations  and  friends  following  at  a  distance  from 
it,  met  the  eye  in  most  of  the  streets  of  the  city  at  every  hour  of 
the  day,  while  the  noise  of  the  same  wheels  passing  slowly  over 
the  pavements,  kept  alive  anguish  and  fear  in  the  sick  and  well, 
every  hour  of  the  night." 

Watson  ^^  presents  us  with  the  same  grewsome  picture : 

"  Look  then  in  which  way  you  would  through  the  streets,  and 
you  saw  the  exposed  coffins  on  chair-wheels,  either  in  quick  mo- 
tion, or  you  saw  the  wheels  drawn  before  the  houses  to  receive 
their  pestilential  charge.  Then  family,  friends,  or  mourners  scarcely 
ever  accompanied  them ;  and  no  coffins  were  ordered  to  please 
the  eye ;  but  coarse  stained  wood,  of  hasty  fabric,  received  them 
all.  The  graves  were  not  dug  singly,  but  pits,  which  might  receive 
many  before  entire  filling  up,  were  opened.  In  the  streets  you 
met  no  cheerful,  heedless  faces,  but  pensive  downcast  eyes  and 
hurried  steps,  hastening  to  the  necessary  calls  of  the  sick." 

The  fever  spared  no  particular  class  of  society.  Ten 
physicians,  Drs.  Hutchinson,  Morris,  Linn,  Pennington, 
Dodds,  Johnson,  Glentworth,  Phile,  Graham,  and  Green, 
died  of  yellow  fever  during  the  six  weeks  of  its  preva- 
lence. Almost  every  one  of  the  rest  of  the  profession  that 
remained  suffered  from  an  attack  of  the  disease.     Many 

"  Annals  of  Philadelphia. 


|)K.    l!i;\|\MiN    Rrsir. 
(Kroiii  Morion's    •  History  oi   iIr-  IVims\  Ivaiiia  Hospital.") 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  133 

clergymen  also  fell  victims  to  it.  Of  course  its  ravages 
were  worst  among  the  poor,  who  lived  in  unhygienic 
conditions. 

The  French  refugees,  who  were  supposed  to  be  respon- 
sible for  its  introduction,  were  the  only  people  who  mani- 
fested the  slightest  immunity  to  it.  It  is  probable  that 
most  of  them  had  previously  had  the  disease  when  in  their 
Southern  homes. 

The  citizens  who  fled  Philadelphia  hoping  to  escape 
the  contagion  in  many  instances  fared  hard.  New  York 
placed  guards  at  all  points  by  which  travellers  from 
Philadelphia  would  seek  entry  to  the  city,  and  would  let 
none  of  them  in.  Citizens  were  ordered  to  report  all 
strangers  coming  to  their  houses  who  might  recently  have 
left  Philadelphia.  Merchandise  coming  from  Philadel- 
phia was  ordered  to  be  fumigated  and  exposed  to  the  air 
for  forty-eight  hours.  Trenton  and  Lamberton  took 
similar  measures.  The  Baltimoreans  resolved  in  town- 
meeting  that  none  of  them  would  receive  in  their  houses 
persons  coming  from  Philadelphia  without  a  certificate 
from  the  health  officer.  Resolutions  like  these,  and  pro- 
claiming rigid  quarantine  against  the  infected  city,  were 
passed  by  almost  all  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  Union 
which  had  any  habitual  intercourse  with  Philadelphia. 
Many  instances  are  related  of  the  misfortunes  which 
befell  the  fleeing  citizen.  How  he  was  compelled  to 
wander  about  the  roads  all  night,  as  none  would  receive 
him,  or  how  he  nearly  starved,  as  he  could  get  no  one 
to  give  him  food. 

The  treatment  of  yellow  fever  in  those  days  was  a 
subject  concerning  which  there  had  been  much  dispute, 
and  the  management  of  the  disease  in  this  particular  epi- 
demic gave  rise  to  one  of  the  most  furious  contests  that 
ever  raged  among  the  members  of  the  medical  profession. 


134 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


In  Dr.  Rush's  book  he  narrates  how  he  tried  many 
methods  of  treatment  without  success  until,  in  reading 
a  manuscript  letter  of  Dr.  John  Mitchell,  of  Virginia, 
which  had  been  put  in  his  hands  by  Benjamin  Franklin, 
he  was  struck  by  the  method  of  treatment  pursued  by 
Dr.  Mitchell  in  the  yellow  fever  of  1741  in  Virginia. 
This  was  to  use  "  lenitive  cholagogue  purgatives,"  and 
appeared  to  Dr.  Rush  as  an  excellent  idea,  but  he  says 
he  thought  copious  bloodletting  should  be  added.  He 
proceeded  to  put  his  treatment  into  immediate  use.  He 
gave  one  patient  eighty  grains  of  calomel,  with  "  rather 
more"  rhubarb  and  jalap.  The  patient  recovered,  and 
Dr.  Rush  was  convinced  he  had  struck  the  proper  method 
of  treatment  for  all  cases  of  yellow  fever.  He  was  very 
successful  with  many  patients,  and  says,  "  The  credit  it 
acquired  brought  me  an  immense  accession  of  business." 
He  mentions  the  following  physicians  who  promptly 
adopted  it:  Drs.  Griffith,  Say,  Pennington,  Leib,  Porter, 
Annan,  Woodhouse,  and  Mease. 

Dr.  Rush  outlined  his  plan  of  treatment  to  be  calomel 
purges  in  very  large  dose,  combined  with  rhubarb  and 
jalap,  bloodletting,  cool  air,  cold  drinks,  low  diet,  and 
applications  of  cold  water  to  the  body.  He  quotes  from 
his  note-book  of  September  10,  "  Thank  God  out  of  one 
hundred  patients,  whom  I  have  visited  or  prescribed  for 
this  day,  I  have  lost  none." 

The  views  of  Dr.  Rush,  however,  provoked  the  greatest 
opposition  among  other  medical  men.  It  is  hard  to  un- 
derstand now  the  anger  with  which  they  attacked  him. 
The  foremost  of  his  foes  was  Dr.  Adam  Kuhn,  who 
published  his  own  method  of  treatment,  over  his  initials, 
in  the  General  Advertiser  of  September  11.  He  placed 
his  reliance  on  bark,  chamomile  tea,  and  cold  affusions, 
with  wine  to  sustain  the  patient's  strength. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  135 

Now  began  a  vigorous  newspaper  war  between  the 
advocates  of  the  various  methods.  Alexander  Hamilton, 
then  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  wrote  a  letter  commend- 
ing in  the  highest  terms  Dr.  Stevens,  who  had  treated 
him.  He  advised  all  wishing  knowledge  on  the  subject 
to  consult  Dr.  Stevens.  Dr.  Stevens  promptly  wrote  a 
letter  to  the  Federal  Gazette  describing  his  treatment. 
These  were  followed  by  letters  from  Dr.  Currie,  Dr.  Por- 
ter, Dr.  Annan,  and  Dr.  Mease,  and  a  host  of  anonymous 
scribes. 

Dr.  Rush  seems  to  have  come  out  the  victor  as  far  as 
public  opinion  was  concerned.  He  certainly  treated  more 
cases  than  any  man  in  Philadelphia.     He  writes, — 

"  Between  the  eighth  and  the  15th  of  September  I  visited  and 
prescribed  for  between  an  hundred  and  an  hundred  and  twenty- 
patients  a  day.  Several  of  my  pupils  visited  a  fourth  or  fifth  part 
of  that  number.  For  a  while  we  refused  no  calls.  In  the  short 
intervals  of  business  which  I  spent  at  my  meals,  my  house  was 
filled  with  patients,  chiefly  the  poor,  waiting  for  advice.  For  many 
weeks  I  seldom  ate  without  prescribing  for  numbers  as  I  sat  at 
my  table.  To  assist  me  at  these  times,  as  well  as  in  the  night, 
Mr.  Stall,  Mr.  Fisher,  and  Mr.  Coxe,  accepted  rooms  in  my  house, 
and  became  members  of  my  family.  Their  labours  now  had  no 
remission." 

In  November  the  fever  had  partially  disappeared,  and 
in  response  to  a  request  from  Governor  Thomas  Mifflin 
the  Committee  of  citizens  made  him  a  full  report  on  the 
subject.  It  appears  from  it  that  from  the  ist  of  August 
to  the  9th  of  November  there  had  been  four  thousand 
and  thirty  interments  in  the  burial-grounds  of  the  city, 
but  as  Christ  Church  and  St.  Peter's  Church  were  the 
only  two  cemeteries  which  kept  records  as  to  the  cause  of 
death  in  the  burials  within  them,  there  was  no  accurate 
means  of  determining  just  how  many  deaths  were  due 
to  yellow  fever.     One  hundred  and  ninety-one  orphans 


136  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

had  been  cared  for  by  the  Committee,  and  they  had  dis- 
bursed twenty  thousand  dollars  in  alleviating  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  poor.  They  had  received  donations  of  money 
amounting  to  twenty-two  thousand  dollars,  besides  much 
in  the  way  of  food  and  clothing.  Dr.  Benjamin  Duffield 
was  rewarded  with  a  present  of  five  hundred  dollars,  and 
Dr.  Deveze  with  a  present  of  fifteen  hundred  dollars. 

The  Committee  agreed  after  the  epidemic  was  over  to 
allow  the  Bush  Hill  Hospital  to  be  used  by  the  French 
government  as  a  hospital  for  a  number  of  sick  and 
wounded  French  soldiers  who  had  arrived  from  the  West 
Indies,  at  a  rate  of  eight  shillings  a  day  for  each  patient 
and  four  dollars  for  each  interment.  Four  members  of 
the  committee  died  during  its  period  of  existence  of  yel- 
low fever, — namely,  Andrew  Adgate,  Jonathan  D.  Ser- 
geant, Joseph  Inskeep,  and  Daniel  Offley. 

In  1794  yellow  fever  again  appeared  in  Philadelphia. 
It  is  once  more  Dr.  Rush  ^^  who  has  transmitted  to  us 
an  account  of  the  outbreak.    Dr.  Rush  says, — 

"  From  the  inflammatory  complexion  of  the  diseases  of  the 
spring,  and  of  the  beginning  of  June,  I  expected  the  fevers  of  the 
summer  and  autumn  would  be  of  a  violent  and  malignant  nature. 
I  was  the  more  disposed  to  entertain  this  view  from  observing  the 
stagnating  filth  of  the  gutters  of  our  city ;  for  the  citizens  of  Phila- 
delphia having  an  interest  in  rejecting  the  proofs  of  the  generation 
of  the  epidemic  of  1793  in  their  city,  had  neglected  to  introduce 
the  regulations  which  were  necessary  to  prevent  the  production  of 
a  similar  fever  from  domestic  putrefaction." 

A  few  suspicious  cases  occurred  in  June  and  July,  and 
in  August  the  disease  numbered  many  victims.  On  the 
1 2th  of  August  the  citizens  of  Philadelphia  learned  that 


^'  An  Account  of  the  Bilious  Remitting  and  Intermitting  Yellow 
Fever,  as  it  appeared  in  Philadelphia  in  the  year  1794.  By  Benjamin 
Rush. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  137 

yellow  fever  was  epidemic  in  Baltimore,  and  Dr.  Rush 
attended  a  patient  who  brought  the  disease  with  him  from 
that  city.  On  the  2d  of  September  Dr.  Rush  wrote  to 
the  mayor  stating  that  yellow  fever  was  present  in  Phila- 
delphia in  epidemic  form.  This  brought  much  abuse 
on  the  doctor's  head.  One  of  his  friends  told  him  he  had 
heard  it  proposed  in  a  public  company  to  drum  him  out 
of  the  city.    He  himself  says, — 

"A  charge  of  insanity  which  had  been  made  against  me  the  year 
before  was  now  revived,  and  propagated  with  so  much  confidence, 
that  one  of  my  patients  who  had  believed  it,  expressed  her  surprise 
at  perceiving  no  deviation  from  my  ordinary  manner,  in  a  sick- 
room." 

Many  physicians  of  the  city  joined  in  the  attack,  as  he 
says  they  were  attending  cases  of  the  disease  but  did  not 
recognize  them.  Drs.  Physick  and  Dewees  rallied  man- 
fully, however,  to  his  support. 

The  Board  of  Health  took  an  active  part  in  the  oppo- 
sition to  Dr.  Rush.  They  refused  to  publish  the  epi- 
demic nature  of  the  disease,  or  to  take  any  steps  towards 
reopening  Bush  Hill  Hospital.  The  Committee  invited 
all  the  physicians  of  the  city,  except  Drs.  Rush,  Physick, 
and  Dewees,  to  appear  before  then>  at  the  City  Hall. 
Those  who  attended  united  in  declaring  that  there  was 
no  reason  to  apprehend  an  outbreak  of  yellow  fever 
in  Philadelphia.  Their  statements  were  published,  and 
appended  to  them  was  an  invitation  to  all  citizens  to 
meet  at  the  City  Hall  to  debate  what  plans  should  be 
adopted  to  prevent  the  disease  entering  the  city  from 
Baltimore. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  most  physicians  were 
brought  to  acknowledge  that  the  disease  was  really  in 
their  midst.  It  was  not  so  severe  in  type  nor  did  it  prevail 
to  nearly  the  extent  of  the  epidemic  of  the  preceding  year. 


138  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Dr.  Rush  attended  upwards  of  two  hundred  cases  be- 
tween the  1 2th  of  June,  1794,  and  the  ist  of  April,  1795. 

The  winter  of  1794-95  was  an  unusually  mild  one, 
and  this  is  the  reason  cases  manifested  themselves 
throughout  the  whole  winter. 

The  chief  interest  to  us  at  the  present  day  as  regards 
the  yellow  fever  of  1794  is  in  the  violent  differences  in 
opinion  which  it  occasioned  between  the  professional  men 
of  the  city.  These  were  divided  into  two  camps,  one 
consisting  of  the  followers  of  Dr.  Rush,  who  believed 
yellow  fever  to  prevail  in  the  city  in  epidemic  form,  the 
other  consisting  of  the  followers  of  Dr.  Kuhn,  who  held 
that  there  was  no  reason  for  alarm.  Dr.  Rush  called  his 
opponents  the  Kuneans.  He  claimed  that  their  diagnoses 
were  wrong,  and  gives  us  a  list  of  the  various  names  by 
which  what  were  in  reality  cases  of  yellow  fever  were 
miscalled,  thus:  "  i.  A  common  intermittent.  2.  A 
bilious  fever.  3.  An  inflammatory  remitting  fever.  4. 
A  putrid  fever.  5.  A  nervous  fever.  6.  A  dropsy  of 
the  brain.  7.  A  lethargy.  8.  Pleurisy.  9.  Gout.  10. 
Rheumatism.  11.  Colic.  12.  Dysentery,  and  13.  Sore 
throat."  In  reply  to  the  question  why  he  was  more 
anxious  than  other  physicians  to  have  his  fellow-citizens 
believe  in  the  existence  of  yellow  fever,  he  says, — 

"  That  I  consider  the  making  the  disease  public,  as  soon  as  it 
appears  in  a  city,  and  the  calling  it  by  its  common  and  vulgar 
name,  to  be  a  duty,  indirectly  included  in  that  divine  precept  which 
forbids  the  taking  away  a  human  life." 

He  accused  his  opponents  of  desiring  to  conceal  the 
existence  of  the  epidemic  because  of  servility  to  wealth, 
"  which  disposes  physicians  to  deny  the  existence  of  pes- 
tilential fevers  in  cities,"  and  because  they  had  all  been 
obliged  to  adopt  the  method  of  treatment  of  fevers  which 
he  had  advocated,  contrary  to  their  views,  in  the  epidemic 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  139 

of  the  preceding  year,  and  were  unwilling  to  allow  that 
it  was  really  yellow  fever  that  yielded  so  readily  to  that 
regimen,  and  lastly,  because  its  existence  would  support 
the  view  of  Dr.  Rush  that  the  disease  could  be  indigenous 
in  Philadelphia  and  was  not  of  necessity  imported  in 
ships. 

Yellow  fever  attacked  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  the 
summer  of  1794.^^  In  the  early  part  of  June  Captain 
Truman  arrived  from  Martinico  in  a  sloop  which  was 
said  to  have  been  infected  by  cases  of  the  disease.  It 
moored  at  Long  Wharf,  and  in  that  neighborhood  the 
first  cases  of  the  disease  appeared.  There  were  in  all 
sixty-four  cases. 

New  York  suffered  from  a  severe  epidemic  of  yellow 
fever  in  1795.  The  summer  was  excessively  hot  and 
cases  of  enteric  disease  were  common.^*  On  the  19th 
of  July  a  ship,  the  "  Zephyr,"  arrived  at  New  York  from 
Port-au-Prince.  A  boy  in  her  crew  died  soon  after  she 
came  into  port,  and  Dr.  Malachi  Treat,  the  health  officer, 
boarded  the  vessel  and  viewed  the  corpse.  He  developed 
the  fever  and  died  on  the  29th  of  July.  Webster  claims 
that  there  had  been  cases  in  the  city  previous  to  the  arrival 
of  the  "  Zephyr,"  but  there  was  a  considerable  doubt  as 
regards  the  correctness  of  the  diagnosis  of  the  suspected 
cases,  whereas  there  was  no  reason  to  doubt  its  correct- 
ness in  the  cases  which  ensued  on  the  arrival  of  that 
ship. 

The  ship  "  William,"  which  lay  at  anchor  near  the 


"  Two  Letters  on  Yellow  Fever  as  it  appeared  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  1794.  Webster's  Collection  of  Papers  on  the  subject  of 
Bilious  Fevers. 

"  An  Account  of  the  Epidemic  Yellow  Fever  as  it  appeared  in 
the  City  of  New  York  in  the  year  1795,  by  Valentine  Seaman, 
M.D.,  New  York,  1796. 


I40  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  Zephyr,"  soon  had  cases  of  the  disease  develop  among 
her  crew,  and  it  was  not  long  before  the  disease  was 
epidemic  in  Water  and  Cherry  Streets,  and  the  low 
ground  lying  between  those  streets  and  Chatham  and 
George  Streets.  It  was  particularly  violent  near  Peck 
Slip.  Most  of  those  who  contracted  the  disease  were 
strangers  who  had  lately  come  to  the  city.  A  popular 
idea  prevailed  that  alcohol  was  a  prophylactic,  and  Dr. 
G.  H.  Smith  ^^  says, — 

"  The  dreadful  consequences  which  a  belief  of  this  sort  produced, 
were  numerous,  and  shocking  to  the  last  degree.  The  fear  of 
death,  so  active  in  ignorant  minds,  when  once  aroused;  idleness, 
the  parent  of  every  vice,  and  listlessness,  the  consequence  of  want 
of  employment ;  all  conspired  with  this  pernicious  doctrine  to 
effect  the  ruin  of  numbers.  Never,  I  believe,  was  drunkenness  so 
common." 

Many  citizens  fled  the  city  and  business  was  greatly 
depressed.  A  proclamation  was  issued  by  the  mayor  of 
Philadelphia  prohibiting  communication  with  New  York 
during  the  continuance  of  the  fever.  This  did  not,  how- 
ever, interfere  with  the  Philadelphians  sending  seven 
thousand  dollars  to  the  mayor  of  New  York  to  be  used 
for  the  comfort  of  the  sick  poor.  The  fever  gradually 
subsided  in  the  autumn.  The  total  number  of  deaths  by 
the  6th  of  October  was  five  hundred  and  twenty-five. 

Yellow  fever  raged  in  Norfolk,  Virginia,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1795.^*^  It  was  at  its  height  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember. There  were  two  hundred  and  twenty  deaths 
from  it  in  six  weeks. 

In  1797  yellow  fever  prevailed  largely  in  Philadelphia, 
Norfolk,   and   Charleston.      In   Baltimore   the   epidemic 

''Letters  to  Dr.  Buell. 

'"  Letter  of  Dr.  Ramsey,  in  Webster's  Collection  of  Papers  on 
the  Subject  of  Bilious  Fevers. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  141 

assumed  great  virulence.  A  few  scattered  cases  appeared 
in  June  and  July,  and  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember that  the  disease  really  could  be  called  epidemic. 
On  the  7th  of  September  a  frigate  was  launched,  and 
this,  Webster  says,  "  collected  many  people  together,  who 
were  exposed  to  a  hot  sun  and  fatigue,  which  spread 
the  disease."  The  total  number  of  burials  in  the  city 
from  August  i  to  October  29  was  five  hundred  and  forty- 
five. 

In  Philadelphia  in  1797  there  were  a  few  sporadic  cases 
in  June;  in  July  the  epidemic  was  fully  established. 
There  was  the  usual  division  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
the  disease  was  engendered  by  some  filthy  quarter  in  the 
city  or  whether  it  was  imported.  A  ship,  the  "  Arethusa," 
had  arrived  from  Havana  and  Jamaica  on  the  23d  of 
July,  and  it  was  held  by  many  that  it  was  introduced  by 
this  ship;  another  party  held  that  it  originated  in  a  ship, 
the  "  Navigation,"  from  Marseilles.  It  raged  in  the 
district  bounded  by  South  Street,  Front  Street,  Spruce 
Street,  and  the  Delaware  River.  Governor  Mifflin  issued 
a  proclamation  forbidding  communication  with  this  part 
of  the  city.  Barricades  were  erected  at  the  points  where 
streets  entered  it  and  yellow  flags  placed  to  warn  people. 
A  fine  of  three  hundred  dollars  was  imposed  on  any  one 
who  should  break  this  quarantine,  either  by  entering  or 
coming  out  of  the  infected  area,  unless  by  permit.  In- 
spectors were  appointed  with  almost  unlimited  power  to 
enter  houses  and  remove  the  sick  to  the  fever  hospital. 
Thousands  of  people  fled  from  the  city,  commerce  came 
to  an  almost  complete  standstill.  It  is  interesting  to  find 
Jean  Deveze,  the  French  doctor  who  had  been  physician 
at  Bush  Hill  Hospital,  protesting  against  the  measures 
taken  by  those  in  authority,  and  assuring  the  public  that 
nothing  was  gained  and  much  harm  was  done  by  the 


142  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

alarm  with  which  proclamations  and  the  publication  of 
lists  of  those  sick  or  dead  of  the  fever  filled  the  people. 
Nevertheless  the  alarm  continued.  No  services  were 
held  in  the  churches.  Philadelphia  was  then  the  capital 
of  the  United  States,  but  the  government  officials  has- 
tened to  move  their  offices  to  places  outside  the  city. 
A  city  of  tents  sprang  up  on  the  banks  of  the  Schuylkill. 

On  August  15  the  College  of  Physicians  received  a 
letter  from  the  governor  requesting  their  opinion  as  to 
how  the  calamity  overhanging  the  city  could  best  be 
averted,  and  on  the  226.  of  August  the  Board  of  Health 
preferred  a  similar  request,  and  asked  them  to  publish 
such  advice  "  as  would  tend  to  check  the  progress  of  the 
contagion."  ^^  These  requests  were  promptly  complied 
with.  Again  on  October  30  the  governor  wrote,  desirous 
of  learning  how  to  purify  the  city  from  "  latent  con- 
tagion." On  the  7th  of  November  the  College  replied 
recommending  cleanliness  of  streets  and  dwellings,  and 
the  thorough  fumigation  and  ventilation  of  infected 
houses.  They  thought  the  Board  of  Health  ought  to 
consist  of  five  persons,  two  of  whom  should  be  physi- 
cians, and  that  a  strict  quarantine  should  be  enforced  on 
vessels  from  suspected  ports  during  the  heated  season. 
This  document  reiterates  the  former  statement  of  the 
College,  that  in  their  opinion  yellow  fever  is  an  imported 
disease.  It  was  signed  by  John  Redman,  President,  and 
Thomas  C.  James,  Secretary. 

The  physicians  of  the  city  became  divided  into  two 
groups,  those  who  followed  the  method  of  treatment  of 
yellow  fever  pursued  by  Benjamin  Rush  and  those  who 

"  Facts  and  Observations  relative  to  the  Nature  and  Origin  of 
the  Pestilential  Fever,  which  prevailed  in  the  City  of  Philadelphia, 
in  1793,  1797,  and  1798.  By  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Phila- 
delphia, 1799. 


i 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  143 

were  adherents  of  William  Currie.  Rush  held  that  the 
disease  was  of  domestic  origin,  Currie  held  that  it  was 
imported  from  southern  ports.  Rush  believed  in  a  course 
of  mercurials  and  copious  bleeding,  the  followers  of 
Currie  disapproved  of  bleeding  as  having  a  tendency  to 
weaken  the  patient.  Their  disciples  were  not  slow  in 
taking  the  quarrel  into  the  newspapers,  and  the  latter 
were  soon  filled  with  the  bitterest  and  most  savage  at- 
tacks on  the  leaders  and  prominent  men  of  the  two 
parties.  It  even  led  to  personal  encounters.  The  United 
States  Gazette  published  a  very  severe  article  on  Dr. 
Rush,  which  he  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  a  Dr. 
Ross.  John  Rush,  son  of  Benjamin,  wrote  a  letter  to 
Dr.  Ross,  and  the  latter  called  him  some  unpleasant 
names,  whereupon  John  Rush  caned  him.  Dr.  Ross 
promptly  challenged  Dr.  Rush  to  a  duel,  as  he  held  him 
responsible  for  his  son's  action.  Rush  refused  the  chal- 
lenge and  published  all  the  correspondence  on  the  matter 
in  the  newspapers.  Many  lawsuits  also  arose  from  the 
libellous  articles  which  appeared  on  both  sides.  The 
epidemic  disappeared  with  the  frost,  having  carried  off 
one  thousand  people,  but  the  bitter  feelings  engendered 
by  the  controversy  long  left  their  traces  in  the  profes- 
sional and  social  relations  of  the  citizens.  One  result 
of  the  controversy  was  the  founding  of  the  "  Academy 
of  Medicine  of  Philadelphia"  by  the  adherents  of  Dr. 
Rush ;  the  latter  resigned  from  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians, but  protested  that  he  was  still  a  well-wisher  to 
that  body.  Dr.  Physick  was  the  first  president  of  the 
new  society. 

J  In  the  summer  of  1797  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  was 
likewise  visited  by  yellow  fever  in  epidemic  form.  The 
fever  was  introduced  by  the  schooner  "  Betsey."  which 
arrived  in  Providence  on  the  8th  of  August  after  a  voy- 


144  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

age  of  twenty-four  days  from  the  Mole  St.  Nicholas. 
Fifty-six  families  were  infected  by  the  fever.  The  exact 
mortality  is  not  known. 

In  1798  Philadelphia  was  again  ravaged  by  yellow 
fever.  The  Academy  of  Medicine  announced  its  opinion 
that  the  disease  resulted  from  the  state  of  the  atmosphere 
and  other  unhygienic  conditions.  The  College  of  Physi- 
cians held  that  it  was  imported.  About  the  end  of  June 
a  great  influx  of  persons  from  the  West  Indies  occurred. 
The  British  had  shortly  before  evacuated  Port-au-Prince 
and  a  number  of  other  places  held  by  them.  On  the  5th 
of  July  no  less  than  eight  vessels  arrived  in  Philadelphia 
from  various  West  Indian  ports,  bringing  two  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  passengers  and  one  hundred  and  six- 
teen seamen.  On  the  8th  of  July  the  ship  "  Deborah" 
arrived,  having  on  board  a  number  of  infected  persons, 
some  of  whom  were  smuggled  ashore  in  spite  of  the  quar- 
antine to  which  the  vessel  was  subjected.  The  epidemic 
began  in  the  locality  to  which  these  persons  were  taken. 
Later  two  other  ships,  the  "  Ariel"  and  the  "  Aurora,' 
arrived  from  the  West  Indies  bearing  infected  persons, 
to  contact  with  whom  some  of  the  cases  which  subse- 
quently developed  could  be  traced. 

On  the  6th  of  August  there  were  known  to  be  at  least 
twenty-six  cases  of  yellow  fever  in  the  city,  and  at  a 
meeting  of  the  College  of  Physicians  held  on  that  day  it 
was  resolved, — 

"  That  the  College  inform  the  Board  of  Health,  that  a  malig- 
nant contagious  fever  has  made  its  appearance  in  Water-street, 
between  Walnut  and  Spruce-streets,  and  in  the  vicinity  thereof; 
and  that  the  College  recommended  to  the  Board  of  Health  to  pro- 
cure the  removal  of  all  the  families  that  are  situated  between 
Walnut  and  Spruce-streets,  and  the  east  side  of  Front  street  and 
the  river;  and  to  have  all  the  shipping,  lying  between  Walnut  and 
Spruce-streets  removed  to  a  proper  distance  from  the  city." 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  145 

The  Board  of  Health  pubHshed  a  proclamation  in 
compliance  with  this  request,  but  instead  of  removing  the 
shipping  "  to  a  proper  distance  from  the  city,"  they 
merely  ordered  the  ships  from  the  wharves  at  which  they 
were  lying,  whereupon  they  all  moved  to  other  wharves 
and  thus  spread  the  contagion. 

The  Academy  of  Medicine  met  on  the  8th  of  August 
and  drew  up  a  statement  to  the  Board  of  Health,  in 
which  they  proclaimed  their  belief  that  the  disease  was  of 
domestic  origin,  and  advised, — 

"  1st.  The  removal  of  all  the  families  from  those  parts  of  the 
city  where  the  disease,  from  the  contamination  of  the  atmosphere, 
appears  chiefly  to  exist,  and  the  preventing  those  parts  being  visited 
by  the  citizens. 

"  2ndly.  The  removal  of  all  ships  and  putrid  articles  of  com- 
merce from  the  wharves  and  stores  of  the  city. 

"  3rdly.  The  cleaning  of  the  docks,  wharves,  yards,  and  cellars ; 
also  the  washing  of  the  gutters  every  day,  and  of  the  streets  and 
alleys  three  times  a  week,  by  means  of  pumps  and  fire  engines. 

"  4thly.  The  appointment  of  a  sufficient  number  of  physicians  to 
take  care  of  such  of  the  poor  as  may  be  affected  with  the  fever. 

"  Sthly.  Publicly  to  advise  the  citizens  to  avoid  all  the  usual 
exciting  causes  of  fever,  such  as  intemperance,  fatigue,  excessive 
heat,  the  night  air,  all  violent  and  debilitating  passions  of  the  mind. 

"  6thly.  To  advise  them,  in  every  case  of  indisposition,  however 
slight  in  appearance,  to  apply  immediately  for  medical  aid." 

Alarm  now  spread  throughout  the  city.  Every  one 
recalled  the  terrible  days  of  1793  and  1797,  and  another 
exodus  promptly  began.  It  is  estimated  that  forty  thou- 
sand persons  fled  from  the  city,  a  number  representing 
from  three-fourths  to  five-sixths  of  the  entire  population. 
The  various  United  States  government  offices  were  re- 
moved to  Germantown,  Trenton,  or  Chester.  Tliree 
newspapers  ceased  to  be  published  and  a  fourth  moved  to 
Germantown.  The  people  in  neighboring  places  mani- 
fested much  less  uneasiness  at  receiving  refugees  than 
at  the  time  of  previous  epidemics,  as  the  idea  was  now 

10 


146  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

prevalent  that  it  could  not  be  conveyed  into  other  places 
except  by  persons  actually  sick  with  the  disease.  The 
City  Hospital  was  opened  for  the  reception  of  the  sick, 
and  public  notice  given  that  patients  would  be  admitted 
on  the  certificate  of  any  regular  practising  physician,  the 
city  furnishing  carriages  in  which  the  sick  might  be 
brought  to  the  hospital.  At  the  hospital  burying-ground 
graves  were  kept  ready,  with  grave-diggers  constantly 
at  hand  day  and  night. 

"  When  a  person  died,  it  was  only  necessary  to  make  applica- 
tion at  the  Health  office,  where  hearses  and  coffins  were  in  readiness 
to  convey  the  corpse  to  the  grave."  ^* 

Drs.  Philip  Syng  Physick  and  Samuel  Cooper  were 
appointed  resident  physicians  at  the  City  Hospital.  Free 
medical  advice  and  medicines  were  furnished  the  poor 
by  the  appointment  of  physicians  for  different  districts. 
The  northern  part  of  the  city  and  Northern  Liberties  were 
placed  in  charge  of  Dr.  Francis  Bowes  Sayre,  Dr.  James 
Mease,  and  Dr.  Kinlaid;  the  southern  part  of  the  city 
and  Southwark  were  assigned  to  Dr.  John  Church  and 
Dr.  Benjamin  Duffield;  and  the  poor  in  the  city  proper 
were  attended  by  Dr.  Samuel  Duffield. 

The  citizens  who  had  witnessed  the  acrimonious  and 
undignified  squabbles  and  fights  which  had  been  indulged 
in  by  the  members  of  the  medical  profession  on  previous 
visitations  of  the  fever  felt  a  not  unnatural  lack  of  con- 
fidence in  the  medical  skill  of  the  physicians  and  hesi- 
tated to  avail  themselves  of  the  medical  aid  that  they 
were  so  earnestly  advised  to  resort  to.  They  recalled 
how  one  part  of  the  profession  had  accused  the  other  of 
bleeding  and  purging  its  patients  to  death,  and  how  the 

^'*  Condie  and  Folwell,  Yellow  Fever  of  1798. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  147 

followers  of  Dr.  Rush  had  retorted  that  their  opponents 
had  merely  allowed  their  patients  to  die  through  lack 
of  professional  knowledge.  This  led  also  to  a  great  re- 
luctance on  the  part  of  those  sick  of  the  fever  to  be  taken 
to  the  City  Hospital.  All  this,  too,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  Dr.  Condie  says  "  it  was  truly  agreeable  to  observe 
the  harmony  that  prevailed  among  the  physicians  in  this 
period  of  sickness  and  distress."  The  memory  of  former 
lack  of  harmony  was  too  recent. 

So  general  did  this  desire  on  the  part  of  the  citizens  to 
avoid  availing  themselves  of  medical  aid  become,  that  on 
the  13th  of  August  the  Board  of  Health  issued  the  fol- 
lowing : 

"  The  Board  of  Managers  of  the  Marine  and  City  Hospitals  have 
observed,  with  deep  regret,  the  fatal  consequences  of  delay  in  the 
applications  for  medical  aid,  to  persons  afflicted  with  the  prevailing 
malignant  fever,  and  that  the  removal  of  patients  to  the  City  Hos- 
pital, in  many  cases,  is  procrastinated  until  they  are  literally  sent 
there  to  die.  They  recommend,  in  the  most  earnest  manner,  the 
early  removal  of  patients  to  the  City  Hospital,  where,  the  public 
may  be  assured,  that  every  possible  comfort  and  accommodation 
will  be  afforded.  The  public  are  informed,  that  the  care  of  the 
patients,  and  management  of  the  City  Hospital,  is  committed  to 
Dr.  Physick  and  Dr.  Cooper,  who  reside  constantly  there,  and 
whose  professional  eminence,  it  is  presumed,  will  ensure  a  just 
confidence. 

"  An  apothecary  also  resides  at  the  Hospital,  with  an  ample 
store  of  the  best  medicines.  The  Board  consider  this  recommenda- 
tion as  of  the  highest  importance,  and  entreat  the  attention  of  their 
fellow-citizens. 

"  By  order  of  the  Board  of  Managers ; 

"  Wm.  Jones,  President." 

This  recommendation  seems,  however,  to  have  proved 
ineffectual,  for,  on  the  i8th  of  August,  the  Board  issued 
the  following: 

"  The  malignity  of  the  prevailing  fever,  and  its  insidious  ap- 
proaches, are  such,  as  to  resist  the  power  of  medicine,  unless  appli- 
cation is  made  in  the  first  instance  of  complaint. 


148  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  The  Board  lament  that  their  recommendation  has  not  been 
attended  to ;  as,  in  most  instances,  the  patients  have  been  ill  three 
or  four  days  previous  to  application  for  medical  aid ;  to  which, 
in  a  great  degree,  is  to  be  attributed,  the  deaths  of  many  valuable 
members  of  society.  The  Board  reiterate  their  call  to  their  fellow- 
citizens,  and  earnestly  request,  that  not  a  moment  may  be  delayed 
in  obtaining  medical  assistance." 

In  the  early  days  of  their  regime  at  the  City  Hospital 
Drs.  Physick  and  Cooper  became  greatly  alarmed  at  the 
mortality  which  prevailed  among  the  patients  in  their 
care.  They  accordingly  addressed  a  note  to  Dr.  Rush 
requesting  his  advice  as  to  the  best  plan  of  treatment  to 
be  pursued.  He  replied  recommending  purging  and 
bleeding  as  the  measures  he  had  found  most  efficacious 
in  previous  epidemics.  Later,  on  September  3,  Dr.  Rush 
and  Dr.  Samuel  P.  Griffitts  published  in  the  newspapers 
an  article  advising  people  of  the  best  course  to  pursue  if 
taken  with  the  disease.  An  anonymous  communication 
also  appeared  in  the  United  States  Gazette  offering  advice 
in  the  same  manner,  but  of  different  nature.  It  was 
signed  Mentor,  but  was  undoubtedly  written  by  Dr.  Cur- 
rie,  the  old  opponent  of  Dr.  Rush. 

Condie  gives  the  names  of  the  following  physicians 
who  remained  in  the  city  during  the  epidemic, — viz.,  Drs. 
Rush,  Griffitts,  Mease,  Wistar,  Gallaher,  Caldwell,  Har- 
ris, Connover,  Proudfit,  Leib,  Church,  Boys,  S.  Duffield, 
B.  Duffield,  Park,  Stuart,  Strong,  Biglow,  Kinlaid,  Pfief- 
fer,  Yeatman,  Trexo,  Munges,  Pascalis,  Laroche,  and 
Devivier. 

On  the  1st  of  September  the  Board  of  Health  an- 
nounced that,  acting  with  the  Guardians  of  the  Poor, 
they  had  caused  tents  to  be  erected  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Schuylkill  to  accommodate  the  poor  who  were  unable 
to  obtain  employment  and  had  no  place  to  live.  It  was 
announced  that  there  were  now  ready  accommodations 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  149 

for  twelve  hundred  persons,  and  an  urgent  appeal  was 
made  for  money  and  supplies  that  yet  more  poor  persons 
might  be  helped.  In  response  to  this  appeal  the  Phila- 
delphians  who  had  sought  safety  in  flight  to  German- 
town  held  a  meeting  and  resolved  to  raise  a  fund  of 
thirty  thousand  dollars,  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Board  of  Health  in  their  efforts  to  relieve  the  poor. 
Contributions  were  also  received  from  Baltimore  and 
other  places,  and  "  A  Yankee  Seaman''  sent  fifty  dollars 
from  Boston,  with  a  letter  regretting  that  he  could  not 
send  more.  In  a  short  time  the  population  in  the  city  of 
tents  had  reached  over  two  thousand  in  number.  The 
people  in  it  were  comfortably  provided  for,  well-cooked 
food  in  ample  quantity  was  supplied  them,  the  tents 
were  on  wide  streets,  and  the  camp  was  carefully  po- 
liced. The  contrast  between  the  comfortable  situation 
of  the  campers  and  the  miserable  condition  of  those 
who  remained  in  the  city  was  stated  in  a  widely-circulated 
handbill,  written  by  some  anonymous  hand,  which  was 
distributed  in  the  city  about  the  24th  of  September.  It 
read: 

'■  Reflect  Before  It  Is  Too  Late. 

"  Fellow-Citizens !  reflect  upon  your  danger  before  it  is  too  late. 
One  hundred  of  us  are  attacked  with  the  fever  every  day.  One  half 
of  that  number  is  daily  carried  to  the  grave.  If  we  remain  in 
town,  it  is  probable  that  the  fever  will  continue  five  or  six  weeks 
longer ;  and,  by  that  time,  one-half  of  our  number  will  have  been 
sick !    and  one-fourth  of  us  will  be  no  more ! 

"  How  different  is  the  situation  of  our  friends  in  the  country 
and  in  the  tents ! 

"  Two  thousand  persons  in  the  tents  have  lost  but  seventeen  in 
twenty-five  days,  while  the  same  number  in  Philadelphia  have  lost 
one  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

"  At  the  encampments,  there  is  great  plenty  of  good  food ; 

"  In  town  it  is  resolved  to  give  nothing  to  the  poor  who  are 
able  to  go. 


I50  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  Why  Do  You  Prefer  Famine,  Sickness,  and  Death,  To  Health 
and  Plenty? 

"  It  is  not  yet  too  late  to  remove. 
"Go,  Before  It  Is  Too  Late!" 

Dr.  Samuel  Duffield  was  physician  to  the  camp. 
Schools  were  established  in  it,  which  were  attended  by 
no  less  than  two  hundred  and  eighty  children. 

To  add  to  the  terror  of  the  sickness  thieving  and 
wickedness  of  all  kinds  became  rife.  On  August  4  an 
attempt  was  made  to  rob  the  Bank  of  Pennsylvania. 
This  was  unsuccessful,  but  on  the  26.  of  September  thieves 
managed  to  break  in  and  secure  over  one  hundred  and 
sixty-two  thousand  dollars.  The  fever  broke  out  among 
the  prisoners  in  the  city  jail.  This  led  to  the  removal  of 
the  debtors  and  those  committed  for  minor  offences  to 
other  places.  The  jailer,  a  man  named  Smith,  resigned, 
and  his  place  was  voluntarily  filled  by  Robert  Wharton, 
the  mayor,  a  man  of  great  benevolence.  He  was  first 
assisted  by  Peter  Helm,  who  had  previously  done  such 
good  service  at  Bush  Hill.  Dr.  Benjamin  Duffield  at- 
tended the  prisoners.  On  the  i8th  of  September  a  des- 
perate attempt  was  made  by  some  convicts  to  break  jail. 
They  overcame  several  constables  who  were  escorting 
the  doctor  on  his  daily  visit  and  made  a  rush  for  the 
gates.  Robert  Wharton  and  several  constables,  how- 
ever, intercepted  them,  and  after  shooting  several  man- 
aged to  drive  the  rest  back  into  their  cells.  In  a  diary 
kept  by  Samuel  Coates,  one  of  the  managers  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital,  is  a  curious  anecdote  in  this  connec- 
tion.^^   He  writes : 

"  One  night  I  dreamed  the  Prisoners  would  make  a  violent  at- 
tempt to  rush  out  of  Gaol  and  it  made  me  very  unhappy,  as  I  felt 
a  confident  assurance  it  would  come  to  pass,  accordingly,  I  left  the 

"  Morton's  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  p.  72. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  151 

Hospital  immediately  after  Breakfast  and  waited  on  Robert  Wharton, 
the  Mayor,  who  turned  Prison  Keeper  for  the  time  being  on  account 
of  the  sickness,  and  told  him  of  my  dream  &  how  unhappy  I  felt 
—  and  that  I  thought  he  required  more  assistance  than  he  had  — 
I  mentioned  that  if  he  would  accept  my  offer  I  would  send  Francis 
Higgins  to  his  aid  who  was  steward  of  the  Hospital,  &  had  formerly 
been  a  prison  keeper  &  used  to  their  schemes  &  knew  how  to  counter- 
act them;  if  that  wo'd  not  answer  his  purpose  if  he  desired  it  I 
would  go  to  the  Governor  &  request  a  further  Guard  to  protect 
him  —  he  told  me  he  was  much  obliged  to  me,  but  it  was  unneces- 
sary—  that  they  well  knew  he  was  well  provided  with  arms  & 
pointing  to  several  musquets  in  the  room  he  took  up  one  with 
the  bayonet  fixed  &  presented  it  towards  the  wall  of  his  room 
sang  '  I  am  ready  for  them,  but  there  is  no  Danger' —  I  told  him  to 
keep  a  good  lookout  for  I  was  confident  they  would  try  to  escape, 
&  left  him;  but  in  parting  he  asked  me  if  I  would  go  in  the  yard 
&  see  the  Prisoners  at  their  work.  I  excused  myself  for  that  time, 
&  said  goodby,  perhaps  I  may  come  another  time  —  from  the  Gaol 
I  proceeded  immediately  towards  my  own  house  to  enquire  how 
matters  were  at  home,  having  received  a  hint  that  some  thieves 
had  entered  my  next  Neighbors  house  in  the  night.  In  my  way 
home,  in  less  than  5  minutes  as  I  believe  after  I  left  Robert  Sa 
when  I  had  just  reached  Friends  Almshouse,  I  heard  the  sound  of 
a  Drum ;  It  startled  me  very  much  for  Drum  was  never  but  then 
sounded  in  the  City  in  the  fever  of  1798  —  I  instantly  turned  round, 
knowing  there  must  be  trouble  in  the  Gaol  —  I  now  hurried  to 
it,  &  found  Edw'd  before  the  Gaol  with  a  box  of  cartridges  made 
up,  &  a  number  of  People  running  to  it  from  the  State  house  which 
at  that  time  was  the  rendevous  of  the  Committee  of  Health  with 
all  their  attendants  —  and  just  before  we  got  to  the  Gaol  steps  a 
Musquet  was  fired. 

"  On  entering  the  house  Robert  Wharton  accosted  me  thus :  Oh 
Samuel  what  you  said  has  happened  already." 

Several  more  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  at  later 
periods. 

In  consequence  of  these  many  alarms  an  association 
of  citizens  was  formed,  who  announced  to  the  public, — 

"  That  their  intentions  were  merely  to  have  a  body  of  men  ready 
to  turn  out,  armed  and  equipped,  on  any  sudden  emergency,  or  to 
mount  guard  at  any  of  the  prisons,  or  elsewhere,  if  necessary;  by 
thus  being  ready  with  arms  and  ammunition,  to  repair,  at  the  first 


152 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


notice,  to  their  respective  alarm  posts,  that  they  might  act  with 
the  greatest  promptitude  and  efficiency,  and  that  the  civil  magis- 
trates and  other  good  citizens  might  know  where  to  find  a  body  of 
men  prepared,  to  enforce  a  due  obedience  to  the  laws,  and  preserve 
order  and  tranquility." 

Early  in  September  a  second  camp  was  erected  "  at 
Masters  Place,  near  the  Mill-Pond,  on  the  road  to  Ger- 
man town."  The  dwellings  here  were  wooden  sheds,  and 
upward  of  two  thousand  persons  availed  themselves  of 
its  advantages.  Drs.  Currie  and  Dewees  attended  the 
inmates  gratuitously.  When  the  epidemic  was  over  and 
before  the  dispersal  of  the  people,  they  drew  up  a  resolu- 
tion of  thanks  to  all  who  had  aided  them  so  greatly  in 
their  hour  of  need. 

During  the  continuance  of  the  fever  there  were  eight 
hundred  and  ninety-nine  cases  admitted  to  the  City  Hos- 
pital, of  which  five  hundred  and  eighteen  died.  The 
total  number  of  deaths  in  the  city  and  Liberties  was 
three  thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty-one.  Towards 
the  end  of  August  the  mortality  was  so  great  that  it  was 
impracticable  to  bury  the  dead  in  separate  graves,  so 
large  trenches  were  dug,  and  the  dirt  taken  from  one 
was  used  to  fill  in  the  other.  In  this  manner  upward 
of  fifteen  hundred  corpses  were  interred  in  a  single 
trench. 

From  the  ist  of  October  the  epidemic  gradually  sub- 
sided, so  that  by  the  ist  of  November  the  city  was 
declared  free  from  yellow  fever.  It  was  proposed  to 
celebrate  this  event  by  having  a  procession  in  from  the 
camps  of  all  those  who  had  dwelt  in  them.  The  project, 
however,  was  given  up  as  impracticable. 

During  the  epidemic  of  1798  there  were  a  number 
of  cases  of  yellow  fever  on  the  Jersey  shore  of  the  Dela- 
ware. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  153 

Wickes  ^°  quotes  from  a  letter  written  by  Dr.  Liimmis, 
of  Woodbury,  New  Jersey,  to  a  physician  in  Philadelphia. 
The  letter  is  dated  December  4,  1798,  and  contains  the 
following : 

"  During  the  late  autumn,  in  the  months  of  September  and  October, 
I  visited  several  persons  afflicted  with  the  bilious  fever,  who  had  no 
possible  opportunity  of  deriving  their  disease  from  any  foreign 
source.  ...  I  have  no  hesitation  in  believing  their  disease  to  have 
been  the  oflfspring  of  local  causes.  The  majority  of  these  cases 
have  occurred  in  families  living  on  farms  situated  on  the  Jersey 
shore  of  the  Delaware.  The  most  valuable  part  of  these  farms 
consists  of  meadows.  The  proximity  of  these  situations  to  the 
Delaware  and  large  tracts  of  meadow-land  lead  me  to  ascribe  their 
disease  (aided  by  a  peculiar  state  of  the  air)  to  the  exhalations 
or  marsh  effluvia  arising  from  the  low  ground  situated  near  the 
banks  and  the  meadows  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Delaware.  The  pecu- 
liar disposition  of  these  exhalations  to  produce  disease  and  death 
was  around  early  in  the  season,  by  the  mortality  which  prevailed 
among  fowls  and  cats  in  this  neighborhood.  I  am  not  alone  in 
having  seen  cases  of  yellow  fever  which  cannot  be  traced  to  con- 
tagion, similar  facts  having  been  witnessed  this  season  by  other 
physicians,  in  various  parts  of  New  Jersey." 

Wickes  also  quotes  the  observations  of  Rush  on  this 
subject  in  his  "  Medical  Inquiries,"  wherein  he  says,  in 
noticing  that  yellow  fever  occurred  in  persons  who  suf- 
fered from  malarial  poisoning,  as  the  result  of  their 
coming  in  contact  with  those  who  already  suffered  from 
yellow  fever, — 

"  In  the  autumn  of  1798  it  \i.e.,  yellow  fever]  prevailed  upon 
the  shores  of  the  Delaware,  in  Gloucester  County,  N.  J.  A  mild 
remittent  prevailed  on  the  high  grounds,  a  few  miles  from  the 
river  during  this  time.  If  a  person  who  had  inhaled  the  seeds  of 
the  yellow  fever  in  Philadelphia,  afterwards  came  into  a  family 
near  the  river,  the  same  disease  appeared  in  several  instances  in 
one  or  more  branches  of  that  family ;  but  when  persons  brought  the 
fever  from  the  city,  and  went  into  a  family  on  the  high  grounds, 

*  History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey. 


154  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

where  mild  remittent  prevailed,  there  was  not  a  single  instance  of 
yellow  fever  being  excited  in  any  of  its  members." 

Wickes  refers  likewise  to  Webster,-^  who  says, — 

"In  1798  the  first  cases  of  the  fever  in  Chester  and  Wilmington 
originated  from  Philadelphia ;  but  the  atmosphere  also  of  the 
country  in  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  actually  generated  the  dis- 
ease in  the  neighbouring  districts,  and  so  it  did  in  Connecticut."  * 

In  1798  Wilmington,  Delaware,  suffered  from  an  out- 
break of  yellow  fever,  which  carried  off  two  hundred 
and  fifty  of  her  citizens.  In  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Tilton, 
who  was  the  most  prominent  physician  of  the  town,  the 
disease  was  introduced  by  fugitives  from  Philadelphia. 

New  London,  Connecticut,  was  also  visited  by  a  yellow 
fever  epidemic  in  1 798 : 

"  Within  a  small  space,  were  fifteen  houses,  inhabited  by  ninety- 
two  persons  —  of  which  ninety  were  affected  with  the  disease ;  thirty- 
three  of  this  number  died,  and  two  only  escaped  the  fever.  The 
disease  prevailed  about  eight  weeks  and  destroyed  eighty-one 
lives." 

Its  origin  could  never  be  traced.  Webster  of  course 
says  it  was  domestic,  but  it  must  have  been  imported; 
possibly  by  refugees  from  other  towns. 

In  the  summer  of  1799  a  number  of  vessels  arrived 
in  Philadelphia  from  various  .ports  in  the  West  Indies, 
many  of  them  having  suspicious  cases  of  illness  on  board. 
Owing  to  lax  methods  of  quarantine  in  many  instances 
these  persons  got  ashore.  On  the  28th  of  June  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  held  a  special  meeting,  and  notified 
the  Board  of  Health  that  there  were  a  number  of  cases 
of  yellow  fever  in  the  neighborhood  of  some  of  the 
wharves,  and  advised  them  to  quarantine  the  vicinity  of 

"^  On  Pestilence. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  155 

such  wharves.  On  the  2d  of  July  the  Board  of  HeaUh 
repHed,  stating  that  they  could  not  coincide  in  the  opinion 
of  the  College  that  there  was  any  cause  for  alarm.  The 
numbers  of  cases  continued  to  increase,  however,  and  on 
the  2 1  St  of  August  the  College  of  Physicians  again  for- 
warded a  note  of  warning  to  the  Board  of  Health.  This 
warning  was  published  in  the  newspapers,  and  at  length 
the  Board  of  Health  made  a  tardy  acknowledgment  of 
the  existence  of  the  disease.  Thereupon  every  citizen 
who  did  not  feel  a  responsibility  resting  upon  him  to  re- 
main, and  who  was  able  to  get  away,  fled,  and  once  more 
the  city  assumed  the  melancholly,  plague-stricken  aspect 
which  it  had  worn  in  previous  years.  Fortunately  frost 
set  in  early,  and  by  the  middle  of  October  the  epidemic 
was  at  an  end.  The  burials  in  the  city  from  the  loth  of 
July  to  the  last  of  October  numbered  twelve  hundred  and 
seventy-six.  During  that  time  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  patients  were  admitted  to  the  City  Hospital,  of 
whom  one  hundred  and  ninety-three  died. 


156  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


CHAPTER    IV. 

MEDICAL  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  FOUNDATION   OF  MEDI- 
CAL   SCHOOLS.^ 

Prior  to  the  foundation  of  medical  colleges  in  North 
America  it  was  customary  for  young  men  desirous  of 
learning  "  physic"  to  go  abroad  and  study  in  the  schools 
of  Edinburgh.  London,  or  the  Continent,  if  they  had  the 
means,  or  if  they  had  not  the  "  wherewithal,"  they  would 
apprentice  themselves  for  a  term  of  years  to  some  prac- 
titioner of  repute  in  the  colonies,  and  at  the  expiration 
of  the  term  of  their  indenture  to  him  begin  practice  on 
their  own  account.  As  there  were  practically  no  laws  as 
to  who  could,  or  who  could  not,  practise  medicine,  many 
poorly  educated  physicians  and  charlatans  arose  to  feed 
upon  the  laity.  It  has  been  estimated  that  at  the  outset 
of  the  war  for  Independence  there  were  upward  of 
three  thousand  five  hundred  practitioners  of  medicine  in 
the  colonies,  of  whom  not  more  than  four  hundred  had 
received  medical  degrees.  Dr.  Stille,^  quotes  from  a 
*'  List  of  the  Graduates  in  Medicine  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,"  printed  by  Mill  &  Co.  in  1867,  the  fact  that 
between  the  years  1758  and  1788  the  names  of  sixty-three 
Americans  appear  on  the  list.  He  also  points  out  that  but 
one  of  these  students  came  from  the  New  England  colo- 
nies, signifying  the  closer  relations  in  existence  between 
the  Middle  and  Southern  States  and  the  mother-country, 

^  This  chapter  is  based  upon  an  article  of  mine  which  appeared 
in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  March  25, 
1900,  which  the  editor  of  the  Journal  kindly  permits  me  to  utilize. 

"  Life  of  John  Dickinson. 


I)K.    Rai.iii    AsillCION. 
(Fniin  a  pi-ii-aii'l-iiik   drawing.  > 


^^-y^gmm  '     u  ■  i  mijui  i 


/^a/Wi.  4^/^vi- y^:^^ 


v:zi 


^t'lLniffi'O/L. 


7 


Written  and  printed  on  the  hack  ot   tlie  se\  en  ol  diamonds. 


Ticket  admitting  Dr.  Ralph  Asheloii  to  the  course  on  Anatomy  at  tlie  rniversily 
of   EdinhurKh.     On  the  hack  of  the  two  of  spades. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  159 

as  we  understand  it,  but  also  in  the  astral  sciences, 
thereby  giving  him  a  great  advantage  over  those  who  had 
received  their  medical  education  at  the  hands  of  physi- 
cians who  were  not  proficient  in  the  science  of  the  stars. 
There  is  an  interesting  account  of  Dr.  Witt  in  Mr. 
Sachse's  book,  "  The  German  Pietists  of  Provincial  Penn- 
sylvania." He  was  a  quaint  character  even  for  his  times, 
as  we  look  back  on  them.  Coming  to  this  country  in  1 704, 
he  settled  first  with  the  German  Pietists  on  the  banks  of 
the  Wissahickon,  but  in  17 18  moved  to  Germantown. 
Here  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1765,  becoming  dis- 
tinguished as  a  physician,  naturalist,  astronomer,  and 
magus.  He  was  also  an  expert  clock-maker  and  builder 
of  pipe-organs.  His  astronomical  investigations  were 
made  through  a  large  telescope  in  his  house,  and  these 
occult  studies  earned  for  him  the  name  of  "  hexen- 
meister,"  or  master  of  the  kobolds  or  fairies.  He  had  a 
-mulatto  servant  whom  the  neighbors  regarded  as  his 
famulus,  or  familiar  spirit.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  John  Bartram,  the  botanist,  and  a  correspondent  of 
Peter  Collinson,  the  famous  English  botanist.  At  his 
death  he  bequeathed  sixty  pounds  to  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital. 

In  the  days  before  there  were  any  medical  colleges  to 
grant  diplomas,  certificates  such  as  this  were  all  that 
many  practitioners  of  medicine  could  show  to  indicate 
any  special  fitness  for  their  calling. 

Wickes  ■*  furnishes  us  with  a  copy  of  a  certificate  issued 

by  Dr.  John  Redman : 

"  Medical  Certificate  to  Mr.  Samuel  Treat,  1765. 
"  Philadelphia.     This  is  to  certify  to  all  whom  it  may  concern 
that   Mr.    Samuel   Treat  hath   served  as   an   Apprentice   to  me   for 
nearly   four   years,    during   which   he   was   constantly   employed   in 

*  History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey. 


i6o  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

the  practice  of  Physic  and  Surgery  under  my  care,  not  only  in 
my  private  business,  but  in  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  in  w^hich 
character  he  always  behaved  with  great  Fidelity  and  Industry.  In 
Testimony  of  which,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  this  first  day 
of  September,  One  Thousand  Seven  hundred  and  Sixty-five. 

(Signed)  "John  Redman. 

"  We  whose  names  are  under  written  do  Certify  that  Mr.  Samuel 
Treat  hath  diligently  attended  the  practice  of  Physic  and  Surgery 
in  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  for  several  years. 

(Signed)  "  Thos.  Cadwallader, 

Phineas  Bond, 
Th.  Bond, 
Wm.   Shippen, 
C.  Evans. 

"  This  is  to  certify  that  Samuel  Treat  hath  attended  a  course  of 
Anatomical  Lectures  with  the  greatest  diligence  and  assiduity. 

(Signed)  "William  Shippen,  Jr." 

Dr.  Thomas  G.  Morton,  in  his  "  History  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital,"  also  gives  some  interesting  specimens 
of  the  certificates  granted  by  the  hospital  authorities  to 
those  who  had  attended  the  hospital  as  pupils.  They  were 
issued  after  the  following  form : 

"  This  is  to  Certify  that ,  son  of ,  West  Jersey, 

entered  regularly  as  a  pupil  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, , 

1763,  and  continued  his  attendance  with  Diligence  and  Application, 

to 1764,  during  which  time  we  hope  and  have  reason  to 

believe  he  has  made  considerable  Progress  in  the  Knowledge  of 
Anatomy  and  the  Practice  of  Physick  and  Surgery,  therefore  wish- 
ing Happiness  and  success  we  give  from  under  our  hands  and  the 
seal  of  the  Corporation,  this  Testimonial  of  our  Esteem  and  Appro- 
bation." 

The  first  man  to  receive  a  medical  diploma  in  North 
America  was  Daniel  Turner,  who  received  the  gift  of  an 
honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  in  1720  from 
Yale  College.  Turner  had  given  much  money  to  the 
College,  and  the  degree  was  intended  as  some  return  for 
his  generosity,  hence  those  of  a  humorous  turn  of  mind 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  i6i 

are  said  to  have  interpreted  the  M.D.  as  signifying  Mul- 
tum  Donavit.  There  was,  however,  no  medical  depart- 
ment at  Yale  until  the  year  1813. 

At  the  centennial  celebration  of  the  ^Medical  and  Chi- 
rurgical  Faculty  of  Maryland,  held  in  Baltimore  in  April, 
1899,  there  was  exhibited  the  medical  diploma  of  Dr. 
Archer  from  the  College  of  Philadelphia.  This  is  proba- 
bly the  first  medical  diploma  awarded  after  a  course  of 
study  in  America.  As  such  it  merits  reproduction.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  faculty  signatures  comprise  the 
eminent  names  of  Morgan,  Kuhn,  Bond,  and  Shippen, 
probably  the  four  most  prominent  medical  men  of  their 
day  in  this  country : 

"  Omnibus  ad  quos  prsesentes  Literae  pervenorint,  Salutem.  Nos 
Praefectus,  Vice  Prsefectus,  et  Professores  Collegii  et  Academiae 
Philadelphiensis,  testamur  Virum  ornatum  ac  ingenum  Johannem 
Archer  assidue  interfuisse,  operamque  sedulo  navasse,  ut  Scientia 
Medica  imbutus  atque  eruditus  discederet  ac  postquam,  Curriculi 
sui  Spatio  peracto,  in  Aula  nostra  coram  Curatoribus,  multisque 
aliis  Civibus  dignissimis  ad  Examen  revocatus,  se  in  omnibus  hisce 
Studiis  satis  versatum  comprobasset,  ex  Curatorum  Mandate  in 
Publicis  Comitiis  vigilissimo  primo  die  Junii  Anno  1768  celebratis 
Baccalaureatus  in  Medicina  Gradum,  omniaque  Privilegia,  et  Hon- 
ores  ad  hunc  Gradum  pertinentes  consecutum  fuisse.  In  cujus  Rei 
Testimonium  his  Liberis,  majori  Collegii  et  Academiae  Sigillo  muni- 
tis,  Die  Annoque  praedictis  Nomina  subscripsimus. 

"Johannem  Morg.\n,  M.D..  F.R.S.. 
Theo.  &  Prax.  Med.  Professor. 
Adam  Kuhn,  M.D.,  Mat.  Med. 

&  Bot.  Professor. 
GuL.   Smith,  Collegii  &  .^cadae. 

Praefectus,   S.T.D. 
Fra.  Alison,  S.T.D.  Coll. 

Vice  Praefect.  &  Acadae  Rector. 
Eben  Kennersley,  Ling.  Angi. 

&  Orat.  Prof. 
GuL.  Shippen,  M.D.,  Anat.  Prof. 
Jas.   Davidson,   Ling.   Graec.   & 
Lat.   Prof. 
II 


i62  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  Fidem  facio  Virum  ornatum  Johannen  Archer,  Praelectionibus 
Clinicus  et  Praxeos  Noscomio  Philadelphiensi  interfuisse  et  Fructus 
Diligentise  suae  uberrimus  consecutum  fuisse. 

"Th.  Bond  (A.M.H.),  Collegii  et 

Acad.  Curator  &  Prselec.  Clinicus." 

The  earliest  law,  and  the  only  one  passed  until  many 
generations  later,  that  I  can  find  making  any  distinction 
between  those  who  had  received  a  diploma  in  medicine 
and  those  who  had  no  degree  was  "  An  Act  for  Regu- 
lating the  Fees  and  Accounts  of  the  Practicers  of  Physic" 
passed  by  the  Virginia  Assembly  in  1736.  "  Surgeons 
and  apothecaries  who  have  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
those  trades"  were  to  charge  at  one  rate,  and  "  those 
persons  who  have  studied  physic  in  any  University,  and 
taken  any  degree  therein,"  were  permitted  to  charge  at 
a  higher  rate. 

In  1758  William  Smith,  in  his  "  History  of  New 
York,  wrote, — 

"  A  few  physicians  among  us  are  eminent  for  their  skill.  Quacks 
abound  like  locusts  in  Egypt,  and  too  many  have  been  recommended 
to  a  full  practice  and  profitable  subsistence;  this  is  less  to  be 
wondered  at,  as  the  profession  is  under  no  kind  of  regulation.  Loud 
as  the  call  is,  to  our  shame  be  it  remembered,  we  have  no  law  to 
protect  the  lives  of  the  King's  subjects  from  the  malpractice  of 
pretenders.  Any  man,  at  his  pleasure,  sets  up  for  physician,  apothe- 
cary, and  chirurgeon.  No  candidates  are  either  examined,  licensed, 
or  sworn  to  fair  practice." 

Not  much  has  descended  to  us  about  the  student-life 
of  those  days.  With  the  exception  of  the  fortunate  ones, 
who  could  look  back  upon  days  spent  in  an  English, 
Scotch,  or  Continental  college,  the  period  of  their  tutelage 
seems  to  have  been  a  dreary  one  to  those  disciples  of 
^sculapius  whose  reminiscences  have  remained  to  us. 
A  few  examples  taken  from  the  accounts  of  the  lives  of 
some  who  subsequently  became  distinguished  will  suf- 
fice to  show  that  it  was  not  all  beer  and  skittles. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  163 

Dr.  John  Bard  was  a  native  of  Pennsylvania,  born  in 
1 71 6.  He  received  his  early  education  in  Philadelphia, 
and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years  was  bound  apprentice  to 
the  senior  Dr.  Kearsley  of  that  city.  Kearsley  was  a 
man  of  great  professional  attainments,  and  very  eminent 
in  his  profession  and  in  public  and  social  life,  but  pos- 
sessed of  a  most  morose  and  gloomy  temperament. 

"  He  treated  his  pupils  with  great  rigor,  and  subjected  them  to 
the  most  menial  employments,  to  which,  Dr.  Bard  has  been  heard 
to  say,  he  would  never  have  submitted,  but  from  the  apprehension 
of  giving  pain  to  his  excellent  mother,  who  was  then  a  widow 
with  seven  children  and  a  very  moderate  income,  and  from  the 
encouragement  he  received  from  the  kindness  of  her  particular 
friend,  Mrs.  Kearsley,  of  whom  he  always  spoke  in  terms  of  warm- 
est gratitude,  affection  and  respect.  Under  such  circumstances  he 
persevered  to  the  end  of  seven  tedious  years,  stealing  his  hours  of 
study  from  sleep  after  the  family  had  retired  to  rest,  and  before 
they  arose  in  the  morning." 

Benjamin  Rush  was  born  on  his  father's  farm,  a  few 
miles  from  Philadelphia,  in  1745.  He  obtained  the  de- 
gree of  A.B.  from  Princeton  in  1760,  before  he  was 
fifteen  years  old,  and  at  once  began  the  study  of  medicine, 
serving  as  an  apprentice  to  Dr.  John  Redman,  of  Phila- 
delphia, for  the  next  six  years.     Thacher  says, — 

"  The  writings  of  Hippocrates  were  among  the  first  books  Ben- 
jamin Rush  read  in  medicine,  and  while  he  was  an  apprentice  he 
translated  his  'Aphorisms'  from  Greek  into  English.  He  also  began 
to  keep  a  notebook  of  remarkable  occurrences,  the  plan  of  which 
he  afterward  improved  and  continued  through  life.  From  a  part 
of  this  record,  written  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  age  of  its  author, 
we  derive  the  only  account  of  the  yellow  fever  in  1762  in  Phila- 
delphia which  has  descended  to  posterity.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
one  of  Dr.  Shippen's  ten  pupils,  who  attended  the  first  course  of 
anatomical  lectures  given  in  this  country.  Two  years  after,  and 
while  he  was  a  daily  attendant  in  the  shop  of  Dr.  Redman,  he 
commenced  his  brilliant  career  as  an  author.  On  the  expiration  of 
his  apprenticeship,  Benjamin  Rush  went  in  1766.  to  Edinburgh  to 
prosecute  his  studies  in  that  city." 


i64  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Dr.  Daniel  Drake  was  of  a  later  period,  but  his  medi- 
cal education  was  so  typic  of  that  of  an  earlier  date  that 
I  venture  to  quote  concerning  it  from  his  life  by  Mans- 
field. His  apprenticeship  began  in  1800,  when  he  was 
sixteen  years  of  age,  to  Dr.  Goforth. 

"  During  the  next  three  years  his  chief  occupation  was  the  study 
of  medicine,  the  running  of  errands,  the  compounding  of  drugs, 
and  all  such  employments  as  befall  a  country  doctor's  boy,  student, 
young  man,  or  whatever  else  bluntness  or  courtesy  might  call  him." 

There  were  no  systematic  courses  of  lectures  or  demon- 
strations for  these  young  men,  unless  they  happened  to 
live  in  Philadelphia,  Boston,  or  New  York.  To  Dr. 
Cadwallader  Golden  is  to  be  ascribed  the  credit  of  the 
first  attempt  to  establish  a  systematic  course  of  lectures 
on-  medical  subjects  in  the  colonies.  Dr.  Golden  was 
born  in  Dunse,  Scotland,  February  17,  1688.  He  gradu- 
ated in  the  academic  course  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh in  1705,  and  then  studied  medicine.  In  1710  he 
crossed  the  ocean  and  settled  in  Pennsylvania.  In  171 5 
he  went  back  to  England,  but  returned  to  Pennsylvania 
in  1 7 16.  In  a  letter  by  James  Logan,  of  Philadelphia, 
written  May  i,  1717,  is  the  following  reference  to  his 
scheme : 

"All  I  know  of  that  bill  is  only  this.  He  [Colden]  came  to  me  one 
day  to  desire  my  opinion  of  a  proposal  to  get  an  act  of  Assembly 
for  an  allowance  to  him  as  physician  for  the  poor  of  this  place.  I 
told  him  I  thought  very  well  of  the  thing,  but  doubted  whether  it 
could  be  brought  to  bear  in  the  House.  Not  long  after  R.  Hill 
showed  me  a  bill  for  this  purpose,  put  in  his  hands  by  the  Gov- 
ernor, with  the  two  further  provisions  in  it,  which  were,  that  a 
public  physical  lecture  should  be  held  in  Philadelphia,  to  the  sup- 
port of  which  every  unmarried  man  above  twenty-one  years,  should 
pay  six  shillings,  eight-pence,  or  an  English  crown  yearly,  and  that 
the  corpses  of  all  persons  whatever  that  died  here  should  be  visited 
by  an  appointed  physician,  who  should  receive  for  his  trouble  three 
shillings  and  four-pence.    These  things  I  owned  very  commendable. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  165 

but  doubted  our  Assembly  would  never  go  into  them,  that  of  the 
lectures  especially." 

Colden's  efforts  were  fruitless,  the  prognostications  of 
Logan  proving  correct. 

In  the  year  1750  Dr.  Thomas  Cadwalader,  who  had 
been  a  pupil  of  Cheselden,  of  London,  gave  a  series  of 
practical  demonstrations  of  anatomy  to  a  number  of  the 
physicians  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  almost  pathetic  to  read 
of  the  eagerness  and  zeal  for  knowledge  displa3^ed  by 
these  old  fellows,  who,  instead  of  manifesting  any  jeal- 
ousy of  the  superior  opportunities  of  their  colleague, 
anxiously  sought  to  reap  the  advantage  of  his  London 
experience,  which  he  in  his  turn  was  just  as  generous  in 
imparting  to  them.  In  the  same  year  (1750)  a  criminal 
named  Hermanns  Carroll  was  executed  for  murder  in 
New  York  City,  and  his  body  was  dissected  by  Dr.  John 
Bard  and  Dr.  Peter  Middleton  for  the  instruction  of  the 
young  men  then  engaged  in  the  study  of  medicine. 
"  This  is  the  first  essay  made  in  the  colonies  for  the  pur- 
pose of  acquiring  medical  knowledge  by  dissection,  of 
which  we  have  any  record." 

Charles  Frederick  Wiesenthal  was  one  of  the  best- 
known  medical  teachers  of  his  day.  A  very  interesting 
account  of  his  life  and  labors  was  published  by  Dr. 
Eugene  F.  Cordell,  in  the  Bulletin  of  tJie  Johns  Hop- 
kins Hospital  for  July — August,  1900.  It  was  accom- 
panied by  the  picture  of  Dr.  Wiesenthal,  which  is  here 
reproduced.  Wiesenthal  was  born  in  Prussia  in  1726 
and  settled  in  Baltimore  in  1755.  His  first  entry  into 
public  life  was  in  1775,  when  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  Committee  of  Observation  of  Baltimore.  On  Alarch 
2,  1776,  he  was  appointed  surgeon-major  of  the  First 
Maryland   Battalion,   commanded   by   the  distinguished 


i66  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Colonel  Smallwood.  He  was  also  medical  purveyor  for 
the  Maryland  troops  and  on  the  board  to  examine  candi- 
dates for  the  army  medical  service.  In  1777  he  was 
surgeon-general  of  the  Maryland  troops.  In  Gay  "Street 
he  had  a  house  which  he  used  as  a  medical  school,  and 
he  seems  to  have  had  many  pupils.  In  1788,  while  he 
and  some  pupils  were  engaged  in  dissecting  the  body  of 
a  murderer,  a  mob  attacked  the  house  and  put  an  abrupt 
stop  to  their  studies.  Among  those  whom  he  taught  Dr. 
Cordell  mentions  Drs.  William  Augustus  Dashiel,  George 
Buchanan,  Ezekiel  John  Dorsey,  Andrew  Wiesenthal, 
and  Frederick  Dalcho. 

Dr.  Cordell  gives  some  interesting  extracts  from  the 
old  doctor's  correspondence.  His  son  Andrew  studied 
medicine  in  Philadelphia  in  1781-82  and  in  London  in 
1786-89.  On  December  25,  1781,  Dr.  Wiesenthal  wrote 
to  him : 

"  We  received  your  letters  ...  in  which  I  see  your  beginning 
to  dissect  yourself  which  pleases  me  and  I  insist  that  you  continue 
to  do  the  same  manually  in  propria  persona,  and  not  being  content 
with  merely  demonstrations  after  the  Subject  is  prepared,  as  I 
want  the  practical  part,  it  will  lead  you  towards  Operations  and 
will  make  that  part  of  Surgery  more  intelligible.  I  hope  you  will 
not  be  content  with  merely  knowing  the  situation  of  the  Viscera, 
but  will  examine  them  minutely,  their  contents  Vessels  Ducts 
&c.  ...  I  hear  Doctor  Shippen  has  a  young  Gentleman  who  pre- 
pares the  Subjects  for  his  Demonstration.  I  would  have  you  culti- 
vate a  strict  friendship  with  him,  as  far  as  his  Morals  will  admit 
of  (in  which  particular  you  know  my  firm  Opinion)  and  frequently 
make  Inquiries  of  the  Doctor  himself,  who  I  hope  is  often  with  you 
himself  &  teaches." 

There  is  a  pleasing  reference  to  Dr.  Thomas  Bond 
in  one  of  the  letters : 

"  I  am  glad  you  have  introduc'd  yourself  to  Doctor  Bond  though 
he  may  have  some  Oddities,  you  may  nevertheless  rely  on  this  that 
his  Acquaintance  will   be  valuable  to  you  both,  his  Learning  and 


Ilk,   I  ii\Ki.i:s  !• .   W  I  i:si;nthal. 
(Reproduced  from  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Bulletin  for  July-August,  1900.) 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  167 

Experience  are  unquestionable,  and  he  moreover  is  very  communi- 
cative and  takes  a  Delight  in  instructing  young  Persons,  and  that 
in  proportion  to  their  Diligence  and  Application,  you  will  therefore 
visit  his  Lectures  frequently  and  freely  apply  to  him  to  resolve  such 
things  as  may  be  obscure  to  you,  he  is  a  good  Surgeon  besides  and 
may  give  you  some  good  hints  in  the  hospital." 

Dr.  Wiesenthal  made  an  earnest  effort  to  have  the 
practice  of  medicine  in  Maryland  regulated  by  law,  but  his 
labors  did  not  attain  their  fruition  during  his  lifetime. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  his  ordinary  costume : 
"  a  scarlet  cloak,  three  cornered  hat,  blue  velvet  coat  with 
gold  buttons  &  buff  facings,  buff  vest,  lace  ruffled  shirt, 
knee  breeches,  stockings,  shoe  buckles,  plain  white  cravat 
surrounding  neck,  wig  &  cue  tied  with  a  black  ribbon." 

He  died  on  June  i,  1789.  His  son.  Dr.  Andrew 
Wiesenthal,  survived  him,  dying  in  1798  when  only 
thirty-six  years  old. 

Somewhere  about  the  year  1752  there  came  to  Rhode 
Island  a  young  Scotchman  named  William  Hunter,  who 
was  a  relative  of  the  two  famous  brothers,  John  and 
William  Hunter.  He  was  born  in  1729,  educated  under 
the  elder  Monro,  and  served  as  a  surgeon's  mate  at  the 
battle  of  Culloden.  In  1754-56  he  delivered  lectures  at 
Newport  on  anatomy  and  comparative  anatomy,  which 
were  advertised  in  the  Boston  newspapers.  He  died  in 
Boston  in  1777.  It  is  curious  to  reflect  that  one  of  the 
earliest  teachers  of  anatomy  in  this  country  was  a  near 
relation  of  two  of  the  greatest  teachers  in  the  medical 
history  of  England. 

To  no  one,  however,  does  the  advancement  of  the 
study  of  medicine  in  the  colonies  owe  more  than  to  Dr. 
William  Shippen,  Jr.,  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  born  in 
the  latter  city  in  1736,  his  father  being  a  prominent  physi- 
cian there.  After  graduating  from  the  College  of  New 
Jersey,   as   Princeton   was   then   called,   he   entered   the 


i68  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

office  of  his  father  and  studied  medicine  with  him  for 
three  years,  and  then  went  to  England,  where  he  studied 
anatomy  with  John  Hunter,  and  midwifery  with  Wilham 
Hunter  and  Dr.  McKenzie,  finally  graduating  from  the 
medical  department  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
His  graduation  thesis  was  "  De  Placentae  cum  Utero 
Nexu."  An  interesting  letter  from  his  father  to  a  gen- 
tleman in  England  has  descended  to  us;  in  it  he  speaks 
of  the  course  of  study  he  wishes  his  son  to  pursue  while 
abroad,  as  follows: 

"  My  son  has  had  his  education  in  the  best  college  in  this  part 
of  the  country,  and  has  been  studying  physic  with  me,  besides  which 
he  has  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  the  practice  of  every  gentle- 
man of  note  in  our  city.  But  for  want  of  that  variety  of  operations 
and  those  frequent  dissections  which  are  common  in  older  countries. 
I  must  send  him  to  Europe.  His  scheme  is  to  gain  all  the  knowl- 
edge he  can  in  anatomy,  physic,  and  surgery.  He  will  stay  in 
London  for  the  winter,  and  shall  attend  Mr.  Hunter's  anatomical 
lectures  and  private  dissections,  injections,  etc.,  and  at  the  same 
time  go  through  a  course  of  midwifery  with  Dr.  Smellie ;  also  enter 
as  a  pupil  in  Guy's  Hospital.  As  soon  as  the  season  is  over,  he  may 
go  to  France,  and  live  with  Dr.  Leese  in  Rouen,  and  there  study 
physic  until  he  can  pass  an  examination  and  take  a  degree." 

Young  Shippen  returned  to  this  country  in  1762, 
having  been  abroad  five  years,  and  in  March  of  the  same 
year  he  began  the  delivery  of  a  series  of  lectures  on  mid- 
wifery,— the  first  special  course  on  that  subject  ever  given 
in  this  country.  The  following  announcement  of  the 
course  was  published  in  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette: 

"  Doctor  Shippen,  Junior, 

Proposes  to  begin  his  first  course  on  Midwifery  as  soon  as  a  number 
of  pupils  sufficient  to  defray  the  necessary  expense  shall  apply.  A 
course  will  consist  of  about  twenty  lectures  in  which  he  will  treat 
of  that  part  of  anatomy  which  is  necessary  to  understand  that 
branch,  explain  all  cases  of  Midwifery — natural,  difficult,  and  preter- 
natural— and  give  directions  how  to  treat  them  with  safety  to  the 


Dk.  Thomas  Cauwalauer. 


Ok.  \Vm.  hmi'ii  .\,  Jr. 


Pioneers  in  medical  education. 
(Reproduced  from  NJorton's  "History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.") 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  169 

mother  and  child;  describe  the  diseases  incident  to  women  and 
children  in  the  month,  and  direct  to  proper  remedies ;  will  take 
occasion  during  the  course  to  explain  and  apply  those  curious  ana- 
tomical plates  and  casts  of  the  gravid  uterus  at  the  Hospital,  and 
conclude  the  whole  with  necessary  cautions  against  the  dangerous 
and  cruel  use  of  instruments. 

"  In  order  to  make  this  course  more  perfect,  a  convenient  lodging 
is  provided  for  the  accommodation  of  a  few  poor  women,  who  other- 
wise might  suffer  for  want  of  the  common  necessaries  on  these 
occasions,  to  be  under  the  care  of  a  sober,  honest  matron,  well 
acquainted  with  lying-in  women,  employed  by  the  Doctor  for  that 
purpose.  Each  pupil  to  attend  two  courses  at  least,  for  which  he 
is  to  pay  five  guineas.     Perpetual  pupils  to  pay  ten  guineas. 

"  The  female  pupils  may  be  taught  privately,  and  assisted  at 
any  of  their  private  labors  when  necessary.  The  Doctor  may  be 
spoke  with  at  his  house,  in  Front  street,  every  morning  between 
the  hours  of  six  and  nine ;  or  at  his  office  in  Letitia  Court  every 
evening." 

Dr.  Norris^  gives  very  copious  extracts  from  notes 
taken  on  Dr.  Shippen's  introductory  lecture,  and  I  quote 
from  him  the  following  portions.  The  lecture  began  with 
the  statement  that  he  was  often  called  in  consultation  in 
cases  of  difficult  labor, 

"  most  of  which  were  made  so  by  the  unskilful  old  women  about 
them  and  seeing  that  great  suffering  to  the  mothers,  accompanied 
often  with  loss  of  life  to  them,  or  their  offspring,  have  followed, 
which  could  easily  have  been  prevented  by  proper  management,  had 
made  him  resolve  to  introduce  a  course  of  lectures  on  that  useful 
and  necessary  branch  of  surgery,  in  order  to  remedy  those  terrible 
evils,  and  to  instruct  those  women  who  have  had  virtue  enough  to 
own  their  ignorance  and  apply  for  instruction,  as  well  as  those 
students  who  are  qualifying  themselves  to  practise  in  different  parts 
of  the  country  with  safety  and  advantage  to  their  fellow  creatures." 

He  mentions  several  cases  of  gross  mismanagement 
of  labor  cases  which  had  fallen  under  his  observation,  and 
then  continues : 


Early  History  of  Medicine  in  Philadelphia. 


170  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  I  shall  be  able  to  present  each  of 
you  with  one  natural  labor  at  least,  and  have  provided  a  machine, 
by  which  I  can  demonstrate  all  kinds  of  laborious  and  preternatural 
labors,  and  shall  give  every  necessary  direction  to  enable  you  to 
manage  all  cases  with  the  greatest  safety  to  mother  and  child." 

He  Stated  the  order  in  which  his  lectures  would  be 

given : 

"  1st.  On  the  Bones  of  the  Pelvis.  2nd.  Male  and  Female  Or- 
gans. 3rd.  Changes  in  the  Uterus.  4th.  On  the  Placenta.  5th 
and  6th.  On  the  Circulation  and  Nutrition  of  the  Foetus.  7th.  On 
the  Signs  of  Pregnancy.  8th.  On  the  Menses,  gth.  Fluor  Albus. 
loth.  On  Natural  Labors,  nth.  and  succeeding  ones  on  Laborious 
and  Preternatural  Labors,  with  the  use  of  Instruments ;  and  con- 
cluded by  particular  lectures  on  the  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children 
within  the  month,  and  directions  concerning  the  diet  of  each,  and 
methods  of  choosing  and  making  good  nurses." 

He  reviewed  the  history  of  midwifery,  and  pointed  out 
what  was  necessary  to  make  a  man  midwife,  "  an  adept 
in  his  profession,  and  to  gain  the  good  opinion  of  the 
female  world,"  advising  him  to  preserve  a  "  grave  deport- 
ment" with  well-timed  conversation,  but  avoiding  re- 
ligiously any  jokes  about  the  patient  or  profession."  He 
warned  the  class  that  the  drinking  habit  might  easily  be 
contracted  "  insensibly  by  the  foolish  custom  of  taking 
a  dram  in  a  cold  or  wet  morning."  Concerning  their 
fees  he  says,  "  I  give  you  only  one  admonition,  which 
is,  to  charge  no  one  extravagantly,  and  every  one  in  pro- 
portion to  their  abilities,  remembering  that  by  giving 
your  service  gratuitously  to  the  poor,  you  will  get  much 
from  the  rich." 

Those  "  curious  anatomical  plates  and  casts  of  the 
gravid  uterus  at  the  Hospital,"  to  which  Dr.  Shippen 
refers  in  his  announcement,  form  a  most  interesting  link 
in  the  genealogical  chain  connecting  medical  education  in 
this  country  with  that  in  England.  They  were  presented 
to  the  managers  of  the  Hospital  by  Dr.  John  Fothergill, 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  171 

of  London,  and  the  whole  story  of  their  presentation  and 
subsequent  history  is  most  interestingly  told  in  Dr.  ^lor- 
ton's  history  of  the  hospital.  When  Dr.  Shippen  was 
studying  abroad  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Dr.  Fother- 
gill,  who  became  much  interested  in  the  account  he  gave 
him  of  the  hospital.  On  July  2^,  1762,  Dr.  Fothergill 
presented  the  hospital  library  with  its  first  volume,  "  for 
the  benefit  of  the  young  students  who  may  attend  under 
the  direction  of  the  physicians,"  and  he  also  gave  the  hos- 
pital, towards  the  founding  of  a  museum,  seven  cases  of 
anatomic  drawings  and  casts,  which  were  then  valued  at 
three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

In  a  letter  to  James  Pemberton,  at  that  time  one  of  the 
managers  of  the  Hospital,  Dr.  Fothergill  says, — 

"  I  need  not  tell  thee  that  the  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  of  ex- 
ceeding great  use  to  practitioners  in  physic  and  surgery  and  that 
the  means  of  procuring  subjects  with  you  are  not  easy.  Some 
pretty  accurate  anatomical  drawings,  about  half  as  big  as  the  life, 
have  fallen  into  my  hands,  which  I  propose  to  send  to  your  hos- 
pital to  be  under  the  care  of  the  physicians,  and  to  be  by  them 
explained  to  the  students  and  pupils  who  may  attend  the  hospital. 
In  the  want  of  real  subjects  these  will  have  their  use,  and  I  have 
recommended  to  Dr.  Shippen  to  give  a  course  of  anatomical  lectures 
to  such  as  may  attend.  He  is  very  well  qualified  for  the  subject, 
and  will  soon  be  followed  by  an  able  assistant,  Dr.  Morgan,  both 
of  whom  I  apprehend,  will  not  only  be  useful  to  the  Province  in 
their  employments,  but  if  suitably  countenanced  by  the  Legislature 
will  be  able  to  erect  a  school  of  physic  among  you  that  may  draw 
students  from  various  parts  of  America  and  the  West  Indies,  and 
at  least  furnish  them  with  a  better  idea  of  the  rudiments  of  their 
profession  than  they  have  at  present  the  means  of  acquiring  on  your 
side  of  the  water." 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Drs.  Morgan  and  Shippen 
subsequently  filled  the  two  first  professional  chairs  in  the 
medical  department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
On  the  minutes  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  May  17, 
1763,  occurs  the  following  entry: 


172  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  Doct.  William  Shippen,  Junr.  attended  and  proposed  that  an 
advantage  may  arise  to  the  hospital  by  the  Anatomical  Drawings 
&  Casts  presented  by  Dr.  Fothergill.  He  offered  his  services  to 
attend  twice  a  month  to  give  some  general  explanation  thereof  to 
such  Persons  who  may  be  desirous  to  view  them,  the  Board  ap- 
proving of  the  Doctor's  Kind  Intention,  the  following  advertise- 
ment proposed  by  him  was  agreed  to  be  published  in  the  next 
Gazette,  viz : 

" '  The  Generous  Donation  of  Doctr.  Fothergill  of  London  to  the 
Pennsylvania  Hospital  of  a  Sett  of  Anatomical  Paintings  and  Cast- 
ings in  plaister  of  Paris  representing  different  views  of  the  several 
parts  of  the  human  body,  being  now  deposited  in  a  Convenient 
Chamber  of  the  Hospital,  as  there  may  be  many  Persons,  besides 
Students  in  Physick  desirous  to  gain  some  general  knowledge  of 
the  structure  of  the  human  body,  Dr.  William  Shippen,  Jr.  pro- 
poses to  attend  there  on  the  Seventh  Day  of  the  Week  the  21st 
inst.  at  5  o'clock  p.m.  and  once  a  fortnight  on  the  same  day  of  the 
week,  at  the  same  hour  during  the  summer  season,  to  explain  and 
demonstrate  to  such  persons  who  are  willing  to  give  a  Dollar  each 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Hospital.'  " 

That  Dr.  Shippen  did  not  possess  the  sole  right  to  use 
the  preparations  is  shown  by  the  following  resolution 
adopted  by  the  board  of  managers  of  the  hospital :  "  Any 
Professor  of  Anatomy  being  desirous  to  exhibit  lectures, 
he  is  to  apply  to  the  Managers  in  attendance  for  Liberty." 
They  also  regulated  the  price  for  pupils  in  physic  by  the 
following  rule :  "  All  pupils  attending  lectures  are  to  pay 
a  pistole  each." 

In  the  autumn  of  1762  Dr.  Shippen  announced  to  the 
public,  through  the  columns  of  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette, 
his  intention  to  give  a  course  of  anatomical  lectures  in 
the  following  letter : 

"Philadelphia,  November  nth,  1762. 
"Mr.  Hall 

"  Please  to  inform  the  public  that  a  course  of  Anatomical  Lec- 
tures will  be  opened  this  winter  in  Philadelphia,  for  the  advantage 
of  the  young  gentlemen  now  engaged  in  the  study  of  Physic,  in 
this  and  the  neighboring  provinces,   whose  circumstances  and  con- 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  173 

nections  will  not  admit  of  their  going  abroad  for  improvement  to 
the  anatomical  schools  in  Europe;  and  also  for  the  entertainment 
of  any  gentlemen  who  may  have  the  curiosity  to  understand  the 
anatomy  of  the  Human  Frame.  In  these  lectures  the  situation, 
figure  and  structure  of  all  the  parts  of  the  Human  body  will  be 
demonstrated,  their  respective  uses  explained,  and  as  far  as  a  course 
of  anatomy  will  permit,  their  diseases,  with  the  indications  and 
methods  of  cure  briefly  treated  of. 

"  All  the  necessary  operations  in  surgery  will  be  performed,  a 
course  of  bandages  exhibited,  and  the  whole  conclude  with  an 
explanation  of  some  of  the  curious  phenomena  that  arise  from  an 
examination  of  the  gravid  uterus,  and  a  few  plain  directions  in  the 
study  and  practice  of  midwifery.  The  necessity  and  public  utility 
of  such  a  course  in  this  growing  country,  and  the  method  to  be 
pursued  therein,  will  be  more  particularly  explained  in  an  Intro- 
ductory Lecture,  to  be  delivered  the  i6th  instant,  at  six  o'clock  in 
the  evening,  at  the  State  House,  by  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  M.D. 
The  lectures  will  be  given  at  his  Father's  house  in  Fourth  Street. 
Tickets  for  the  course  to  be  had  of  the  Doctor  at  five  pistoles  each; 
and  any  gentleman  who  may  incline  to  see  the  subject  prepared 
for  the  lectures,  and  to  learn  the  art  of  dissecting,  injecting,  etc., 
is  to  pay  five  pistoles  more." 

In  February,  1763,  he  published  the  following  notice: 

"  Dr.  Shippen  having  finished  on  Osteology — the  most  dry,  though 
the  most  necessary  part  of  anatomy — will  admit  gentlemen  who 
want  to  gratify  their  curiosity,  to  any  particular  lecture — Tickets 
five  shillings." 

The  first  course  that  he  delivered  was  attended  by  but 
ten  students,  but  in  subsequent  years  he  had  as  many  as 
two  hundred  and  fifty  in  a  class.  There  was  a  great  deal 
of  opposition  to  the  establishment  of  a  place  in  which 
it  was  proposed  to  dissect  the  human  body,  and  several 
times  the  building  in  which  the  dissections  were  per- 
formed was  attacked  and  its  windows  broken.  Dr. 
Norris  says, — 

"  In  one  of  these  attacks  the  Doctor  himself  made  a  narrow 
escape  by  passing  out  through  an  alley,  while  his  carriage,  which 
stood  before  the  door  with  its  blinds  raised,  and  which  was  supposed 


174  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

to  contain  him,  received,  along  with  a  shower  of  other  missiles,  a 
musket  ball  through  the  center  of  it.  More  than  once  he  was 
compelled  to  desert  his  own  dwelling  and  conceal  himself,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  tyrannical  exactions  of  the  people.  Several  times  he 
addressed  the  citizens  through  the  public  papers,  assuring  them  that 
the  reports  of  his  disturbing  private  burying-grounds  were  abso- 
lutely false,  and  stating  that  the  subjects  he  dissected  were  either 
of  persons  who  had  committed  suicide,  or  such  as  had  been  pub- 
licly executed ;  except,  he  naively  adds,  '  now  and  then  one  from 
the  Potter's  Field.'  " 

Gradually,  however,  he  overcame  the  opposition  to  his 
project,  and  the  undertaking  proved  thoroughly  success- 
ful. Norris  says  that  in  December,  1762,  the  newspapers 
stated  the  body  of  a  negro  who  had  committed  suicide 
by  cutting  his  throat  with  a  bottle  was  handed  over  to 
Dr.  Shippen  for  anatomic  purposes,  and  he  also  quotes 
the  following  paragraph  from  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette, 
indicating  that  he  received  aid  from  other  sources  than 
the  cit}'  of  Philadelphia : 

"  Last  Saturday  a  prisoner  was  executed  at  Gloucester,  New 
Jersey,  pursuant  to  his  sentence,  and  his  body  was  sent  by  order  of 
the  Chief  Justice  to  Dr.  Shippen's  anatomical  theatre  for  dissec- 
tion." 

The  Pennsylvania  Hospital  was  a  great  centre  for 
medical  instruction,  furnishing  greater  facilities  for  clini- 
cal observation  than  could  be  obtained  elsewhere  through- 
out the  colonies.  The  first  patient  was  admitted  to  the 
hospital  February  10,  1752.  For  some  time  the  number 
of  patients  capable  of  accommodation  in  the  hospital  was 
so  limited  that  the  physicians  and  surgeons  on  its  staff 
did  not  require  the  aid  of  skilled  medical  assistance  in  the 
performance  of  their  duties,  but  as  the  number  of  in- 
mates increased  the  staff  found  it  very  essential  that  they 
should  have  the  aid  of  assistants  who  possessed  some 
skill  in  the  handling  of  patients,  dressing  of  wounds,  etc., 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  175 

and  it  became  customary  for  them  to  bring  their  appren- 
tices with  them  when  they  made  the  rounds  of  the  wards, 
and  use  them  as  dressers  and  assistants,  the  apprentices 
in  turn  deriving  the  benefit  of  seeing  the  practice  of  the 
hospital.  Besides  their  own  apprentices  they  soon  began 
to  allow  other  students  to  make  the  rounds.  So  many 
young  men  availed  themselves  of  these  privileges  that 
on  May  10,  1763,  the  managers  resolved, — 

"  It  is  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  Board  that  such  of  them  at 
least  who  are  not  apprentices  to  the  Physicians  of  the  House,  should 
pay  a  proper  Gratuity  for  the  Benefit  of  the  Hospital  for  their 
privilege;  the  consideration  of  stipulating  the  sum  is  referred  to 
the  next  board  after  consulting  with  ye  Physicians." 

Dr.  Morton  quotes  the  minutes  of  the  next  meeting 
of  the  board.  May  31,  1763,  which,  as  he  justly  says, 
shows  the  "  disinterestedness  and  liberality"  of  the  physi- 
cians "  in  a  very  honourable  light."  The  meeting  oc- 
curred just  after  the  annual  election  of  managers  and 

physicians  to  the  hospital. 

"  sth  Mo.,  28th,  1763. 
"  It  appears  that  the  Physicians  chosen  were  informed  thereof 
and  have  agreed  to  undertake  the  Service  this  year.  A  copy  of  the 
Minute  of  last  Board  respecting  the  Students  who  attend  the  wards 
at  the  time  of  the  visiting  the  Patients  having  been  communicated 
to  them ;  Doctr.  Thomas  Bond  and  Dr.  Cadw.  Evans  now  attended 
and  informed  the  board  that  the  several  Physicians  have  met  & 
considered  the  same  &  committed  their  Sentiments  thereon  to  writing 
which  they  delivered  &  was  read,  it  being  as  follows,  viz : 

'"  Philadelphia,  May  31,  1763. 
" '  Upon  considering  the  Minute  of  the  Managers  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital  made  the  loth  of  5  mo.  1763,  relative  to  those 
Students  who  attend  the  Wards  of  said  Hospital.  It  is  our  opinion 
that  each  Student  who  is  not  an  Apprentice  to  one  of  the  Physi- 
cians attending  the  House  shall  pay  six  pistoles  as  a  Gratuity  for 
that  Privilege  That  the  Managers  &  Doctors  in  Attendance  for 
the  time  being  shall  be  the  judge  who  are  proper  to  be  admitted 
or  refused.     And  further,  as  the  Custom  of  most  of  the  Hospitals 


176  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

in  Great  Britain  has  given  such  Gratuities  to  the  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  attending  them,  we  think  it  properly  belongs  to  us  to 
appropriate  the  Money  arising  from  thence.  And  propose  to  apply 
it  to  the  founding  of  a  Medical  Library  in  the  said  Hospital  which 
we  judge  will  tend  greatly  to  the  Advantage  of  the  Pupils  &  the 
Honour  of  the  Institution. 

" '  Thos.  BonDj 
" '  Thos.  Cadwallader, 
" '  Phineas  Bond^ 
" '  Cad.  Evans.'' 

"After  Consideration  whereof  the  Board  agrees  to  the  Proposal 
in  respect  to  the  terms  upon  which  Students  in  Physic  are  to  be 
admitted  to  attend  the  wards ;  the  Gratuity  for  which  to  be  paid 
the  treasurer,  and  in  Regard  to  the  Proposal  for  a  Medical  Library, 
that  such  books  as  are  purchased  should  be  approved  of  by  the 
Managers,  as  likewise  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  lent 
out." 

At  the  end  of  their  term  of  instruction  such  students 
were  given  certificates  signed  by  the  medical  staff  and 
managers  of  the  hospital. 

In  1773,  Dr.  Morton  tells  us,  the  managers  began  the 
custom  of  taking  young  men  who  wished  to  study  medi- 
cine as  apprentices  to  the  institution,  the  term  of  appren- 
ticeship being  five  years.  They  were  regularly  inden- 
tured to  the  hospital  for  this  length  of  time ;  when  it  was 
over  each  man  received  a  certificate  stating  that  fact, 
and  a  suit  of  "  cloathes."  This  system  of  apprenticeship 
was  continued  for  many  years.  After  the  foundation  of 
the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania the  apprentices  attended  the  lectures  there  while 
they  were  in  the  service  of  the  hospital.  It  was  not  until 
1824  that  the  rule  was  made  requiring  all  those  serving 
the  hospital  in  the  capacity  of  what  we  now  call  "  resi- 
dents" to  be  regularly  graduated  from  a  medical  college 
previous  to  their  appointment  to  the  position. 

In  1766  Dr.  Thomas  Bond,  of  the  staff  of  physicians 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  177 

to  the  hospital,  suggested  to  the  managers  the  propriety 
of  estabhshing  a  regular  course  of  clinical  lectures,  and 
in  order  to  secure  their  assent  to  such  a  course  being  given 
he  invited  them  to  his  house,  November  26,  1766,  where 
he  read  them  "  An  Essay  on  the  Utility  of  Clinical  Lec- 
tures." This  lecture  was  presented  to  the  hospital,  and 
so  pleased  the  managers  that  they  ordered  its  insertion  in 
their  minutes,  whence  Dr.  Morton  resuscitated  it  in  the 
"  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital."  It  reads  as 
follows : 

"  When  I  consider  the  unskilful  hands  the  Practice  of  Physick 
&  Surgery  has  of  necessity  been  committed  to,  in  many  parts  of 
America,  it  gives  me  pleasure  to  behold  so  many  Worthy  Young 
Men,  training  up  in  those  professions,  which,  from  the  nature  of 
their  Objects,  are  the  most  interesting  to  the  Community,  and  I 
get  a  great  pleasure  in  foreseeing,  that  the  unparalleled  public  Spirit 
of  the  Good  People  of  this  Province,  will  shortly  make  Philadelphia 
the  Athens  of  America,  and  render  the  Sons  of  Pennsylvania,  repu- 
table amongst  the  most  celebrated  Europeans,  in  all  the  liberal  Arts 
and  Sciences.  This  I  am  at  present  certain  of,  that  the  institu- 
tion of  Literature  and  Charity,  already  founded,  &  the  School  of 
Physick  lately  open'd  in  this  City  afford  SufBct.  Foundation  for 
the  Students  of  Physic  to  acquire  all  the  Knowledge  necessary  for 
their  practising  every  Branch  of  their  professions,  respectably  and 
Judiciously.  The  great  Expence  in  going  from  America  to  Eu- 
rope, &  thence  from  Country  to  Country,  &  College  to  College  in 
Quest  of  Medical  Qualifications,  is  often  a  Barr  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  Brightest  Geniuses  amongst  us,  who  might  otherwise  be 
Morning  Stars  in  their  professions,  &  most  useful  Members  of 
Society.  Besides  every  Climate  produces  Diseases  peculiar  to  itself, 
which  require  experience  to  understand  and  Cure,  &  even  the  Dis- 
eases of  the  several  Seasons  in  the  Same  Country,  are  found  to 
differ  so  much  some  Years,  from  what  they  were  in  others,  that 
Sydenham,  the  most  Sagacious  Physician  that  ever  lived,  acknowl- 
edged that  he  was  often  difficulted  and  much  mistaken  in  the 
treatment  of  Epidemics  for  sometime  after  their  appearance. 

"  No  Country  then  can  be  so  proper  for  the  instruction  of  Youth 
in  the  Knowledge  of  Physick,  as  that  in  which  'tis  to  be  practised; 
where  the  precepts  of  never  failing  Experience  are  handed  down 
from   Father  to   Son,   from  Tutor   to   Pupil.     That  this   is  not  a 

12 


178  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Speculative  opinion,  but  real  Matter  of  Fact,  may  be  proven  from 
the  Savages  of  America,  who  without  the  assistance  of  Literature, 
have  been  found  possessed  of  Skill  in  the  Cure  of  Diseases  inci- 
dent to  their  Climate,  Superior  to  the  Regular  bred,  and  most  learned 
Physicians,  &  that  from  their  discoveries  the  present  practice  of 
Physic  has  been  enrich'd  with  some  of  the  most  valuable  Medicines 
now  in  use. 

"  Therefore  from  Principles  of  Patriotism  and  Humanity,  the 
Physic  School  here,  should  meet  all  the  protection  and  Encourage- 
ment, the  Friends  of  their  Country,  &  Well  Wishers  of  Mankind 
can  possibly  give  it.  Though  'tis  yet  in  its  Infancy  from  the  Judi- 
cious Treatment  of  its  Guardians,  it  is  already  become  A  forward 
Child,  &  has  the  promising  appearance  of  soon  arriving  to  a  Vigor- 
ous &  Healthful  Maturity.  The  Professors  in  it  at  present  are  few ; 
but  their  departments  include  the  most  Essential  parts  of  Educa- 
tion ;  Another,  whose  distinguished  Abilities  will  do  honor  to  his 
Country  and  the  Institution  is  Expected  to  join  them  in  the  Spring; 
and  I  think  he  has  little  Faith  who  can  doubt  that  so  good  an 
undertaking  will  ever  fail  of  Additional  Strength,  &  a  Providential 
Blessing.  And  I  am  Certain  nothing  would  give  me  so  much 
pleasure  as  to  have  it  in  my  Power  to  contribute  the  least  mite 
towards  its  perfect  Establishment. 

"  The  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  is  well  Qualified 
for  the  Task ;  his  Dissections  are  Accurate  and  Elegant,  &  his 
Lectures,  Learned,  Judicious  &  Clear. 

"  The  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic  has  had 
the  best  opportunities  of  improvement,  join'd  to  Genius  &  appli- 
cation, &  cannot  fail  of  giving  Necessary  and  instructive  Lessons 
to  the  Pupils. 

"  The  Field  this  Gentleman  undertakes  is  very  Extensive,  &  has 
many  difficulties  which  may  mislead  the  Footsteps  of  an  uncautioned 
Traveller,  therefore  Lectures,  in  which  the  different  Parts  of  the 
Theory  &  Practice  of  Physic  are  Judiciously  classed  and  system- 
atically explained,  will  prevent  many  Perplexities  the  Student  would 
otherwise  be  embarrassed  with,  will  unfold  the  Doors  of  Knowl- 
edge, and  be  of  great  use  in  directing  &  abridging  his  future 
Studies,  Yet  there  is  something  further  wanting,  he  must  Join  Ex- 
amples with  Study,  before  he  can  be  sufficiently  qualified  to  pre- 
scribe for  the  sick;  for  Language  &  Books  alone,  can  never  give 
him  Adequate  Ideas  of  Diseases,  &  the  best  methods  of  Treating 
them.  For  which  reasons  Infirmaries  are  Justly  reputed  the  Grand 
Theatres  of  Medical  Knowledge. 

"  There,  the  Clinical  professor  comes  in  to  the  Aid  of  Speculation 
and   demonstrates   the   Truth   of  Theory   by   Facts ;    he   meets   his 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  179 

pupils  at  stated  times  in  the  Hospital,  And  when  a  case  presents 
adapted  to  his  purpose,  he  asks  all  those  Questions  which  lead  to 
a  certain  knowledge  of  the  Disease,  &  parts  Affected,  this  he  does 
in  the  most  exact  and  particular  manner,  to  convince  the  Students 
how  many,  &  what  minute  Circumstances  are  often  necessary  to 
form  a  judgement  of  the  Curative  indications,  on  which,  the  Safety 
&  Life  of  the  Patient  depend,  from  all  which  Circumstances  and 
the  present  Symptoms,  he  pronounces  what  the  Disease  is,  whether 
it  is  Curable  or  Incurable,  in  what  manner  it  ought  to  be  treated, 
and  gives  his  reason  from  Authority  or  Experience  for  all  he  says 
on  the  Occasion;  and  if  the  Disease  baffles  the  power  of  Art,  and 
the  Patient  falls  a  Sacrifice  to  it,  he  then  brings  his  Knowledge  to 
the  Test,  &  fixes  Honour  or  discredit  on  his  Reputation  by  exposing 
all  the  Morbid  parts  to  View,  and  Demonstrates  by  what  means  it 
produced  Death,  and  if  perchance  he  finds  something  unexpected, 
which  Betrays  an  Error  in  Judgement,  he  like  a  great  &  good  Man, 
immediately  acknowledges  the  mistake,  and,  for  the  benefit  of  sur- 
vivors, points  out  other  methods  by  which  it  might  have  been  more 
happily  treated ; — The  latter  part  of  this  Field  of  Tuition  is  the 
surest  method  of  obtaining  just  Ideas  of  Diseases.  The  great 
Boerhaave  was  so  attentive  to  it,  that  he  was  not  only  present  at 
the  opening  of  Human  Bodies,  but  frequently  attended  the  Slaughter 
Houses  in  Leyden,  to  Examine  the  Carcases  of  Beasts;  and  being 
asked  by  a  learn'd  Friend,  by  what  means  he  had  acquired  such 
uncommon  Certainty  in  the  Diagnostics  and  Prognostics  of  Dis- 
eases, answered  by  examining  dead  Bodies,  studying  Sydenham's 
observations,  and  Bonetus's  Sepulchretum  Anatomicum,  both  of 
which  he  had  read  ten  times  &  each  time  with  greater  pleasure,  and 
improvement. 

"  But  to  give  you  more  familiar  instances  of  the  Utility  of  this 
practice,  let  me  remind  several  of  you,  who  were  present  last  Fall 
at  the  opening  two  Bodies,  One  of  which  died  of  Astmatic  com- 
plaints, the  other  of  a  Phrenzy  succeeded  by  a  Palsey,  and  ask  you 
whether  anything  short  of  ocular  demonstration ;  cou'd  have  given 
you  just  Ideas  of  the  causes  of  the  Patient's  Death,  in  one  we  saw 
a  dropsy  in  the  left  side  of  the  Thorax,  and  a  curious  Polypus  with 
its  growing  Fimbriae  of  14  Inches  in  length  (now  in  the  Hospital) 
extending  from  the  Ventricle  of  the  Heart,  far  beyond  the  Bifurca- 
tion of  the  Pulmonary  Artery,  in  the  other  we  found  the  Brain 
partly  separated  and  the  Ventricle  on  the  opposite  side  to  that  affected 
with  Paralysis,  distended  by  a  large  Quantity  of  Limpid  Serum; 
and  you  must  Remember,  that  the  state  of  all  the  Morbid  parts 
were  predicted  before  they  were  exposed  to  View ;  which  may 
have  a  further  Advantage,  by  rousing  in  you  an  industrious  pursuit 


i8o  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

after  the  most  hidden  causes  of  all  the  affections  of  the  Human 
Body;  and  convince  you  what  injury  they  do  to  the  living,  who 
oppose  a  decent  painless,  and  well  timed  examination  of  the  dead. 

"  Thus  all  the  professors  in  the  best  European  CoUedges,  go  hand 
in  hand,  and  co-operate  with  each  other  by  regular  chains  of  Reason- 
ing &  occasional  demonstrations,  to  the  satisfaction  &  improvement 
of  the  Students. 

"  But  more  is  required  of  us  in  this  late  settled  World,  where 
new  Diseases  often  occur,  and  others  common  to  many  Parts  of 
Europe  visit  us  too  frequently,  which  it  behoves  the  Guardians  of 
Health,  to  be  very  watchful  of,  that  they  may  know  them  well, 
and  by  an  hearty  Union  &  Brotherly  communication  of  observations 
investigate  their  causes  &  check  their  progress.  The  Task  is  ardu- 
ous, but  'tis  a  Debt  we  owe  to  our  Friends  and  our  Country.  The 
Atmosphere  that  Surrounds  us  is  fine,  and  the  Air  we  breathe,  free, 
pure,  and  Naturally  healthy,  &  I  am  fully  persuaded  we  shall  find 
on  strict  enquiry,  when  it  becomes  otherwise,  '  tis  mostly  from 
Contagion  imported,  or  neglected  Sources  of  Putrefaction,  amongst 
ourselves,  and  therefore  whenever  we  are  able  to  demonstrate  the 
Causes,  they  may  be  removed  and  the  Efifects  prevented. 

"  Our  Fathers  after  insuring  to  us  the  full  enjoyment  of  the 
inestimable  blessing  of  Religious  &  Civil  Liberty,  have  settled  us 
in  a  Country  that  affords  all  the  real  comforts  of  life,  and  given 
us  the  prospect  of  becoming  one  day,  a  great  and  happy  People, 
and  I  know  only  one  Objection  to  a  prudent  Man's  giving  North 
America  the  preference  to  any  other  part  of  the  British  dominions 
for  the  place  of  his  residence,  which  is,  that  the  climate  is  sometimes 
productive  of  severe  Epidemic  Diseases  in  the  Summer  &  Fall ;  the 
Country  is  otherwise  free  from  those  tedious  &  dangerous  Fevers 
which  frequently  infest  most  parts  of  Europe.  The  last  wet  Summer 
and  a  short  space  of  hot  dry  Weather  in  Autumn,  caused  so  many 
Intermittents  from  the  Southern  suburbs  of  this  City  all  the  way 
to  Georgia,  that  I  may  venture  to  assert  two  thirds  of  the  inhabi- 
tants were  not  able  to  do  the  least  Business  for  many  weeks,  and 
some  families  &  even  Townships  were  so  distress'd  that  they  had  not 
well  persons  sufficient  to  attend  the  Sick,  during  which  Time  this 
City  was  unusually  Healthy,  how  respectable  then  would  be  the 
Characters  of  those  Men,  who  shoul'd  wipe  this  Stain  out  of  the 
American  Escutcheon  and  rescue  their  Country  from  such  frequent 
calamities. 

"  Sufficient  encouragement  to  make  the  attempt,  is  found  both  in 
History,  the  Books  of  Physic,  and  our  own  Experience.  Several 
instances  were  recorded  of  places  that  were  so  sickly,  as  to  be  un- 
inhabitable until   Princes  have  ordered  their  Physicians  to   search 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  i8i 

into  the  causes  of  this  Unhealthiness,  and  having  discover'd  and 
removed  them,  made  thereby  valuable  additions  to  their  Kingdoms. 
Was  not  our  Ancient  &  Great  Master,  Hippocrates,  so  knowing  in 
the  cause  of  Pestilential  Contagion,  as  to  foresee  an  approaching 
Plague,  and  send  his  Pupils  into  the  Cities  to  take  care  of  the 
Sick,  &  has  not  He,  and  Sydenham  the  English  Hippocrates,  done 
infinite  Service  to  the  healing  Art,  and  gained  immortal  Honors 
to  themselves,  by  their  Essays  on  Epidemics  in  which  they  not 
only  accurately  describe  the  Diseases  of  their  Respective  Countries, 
but  show  the  depraved  constitution  of  the  Air  which  produced  each 
of  them.  Our  own  Experience  also  affords  much  Encouragement; 
when  I  first  came  into  this  City  the  Dock  was  the  Common  Sewer 
of  Filth,  &  was  such  a  Nuisance  to  the  inhabitants  about  it,  every 
Fall,  that  they  were  obliged  to  use  more  pounds  of  Bark,  than  they 
have  Ounces  since  it  has  been  raised  and  levell'd.  Another  striking 
instance  of  the  Advantage  of  Cleanliness  for  the  preservation  of 
Health,  affords  me  an  Opportunity  of  paying  a  Tribute,  justly  due, 
to  the  Wisdom  of  the  Legislature  of  this  Province,  in  framing  the 
Salutary  Laws  for  paving  &  regulating  the  streets  of  this  City,  & 
to  the  indefatigable  industry  &  Skill  of  the  Commissioners  in  exe- 
cuting them,  whereby  they  have  contributed  so  much  to  the  Health- 
fulness  of  the  Inhabitants,  that  I  am  confident  the  whole  Expence 
will  be  repair'd  in  ten  years,  by  lessening  the  Physic  Bills  alone.  A 
Farm  within  a  few  miles  of  this  City  was  remarkably  healthy  for 
Fifty  Years,  whilst  the  Tide  overflow'd  the  Low  Lands,  near  the 
Dwelling  House,  but  after  they  were  Bank'd  by  Ditches  so  ill  con- 
trived that  they  often  did  not  discharge  the  Water  that  fell  into 
them  for  a  considerable  time,  &  Until  it  became  putrid,  and  thereby 
rendered  the  place  as  remarkably  Sickly,  as  it  had  before  been 
healthy,  I  was  told  by  a  Gentleman  of  Veracity  that  he  saw  the 
Corps  of  One  of  Nine  Tenants  that  had  been  carried  from  it  in 
a  few  years. 

"  The  Yellow  Fever,  which  I  take  to  be  exactly  the  same  dis- 
temper as  the  Plague  of  Athens,  described  by  Thucydides.  has  been 
five  different  times  in  this  City  since  my  residence  in  it;  the  causes 
of  three  of  them  I  was  luckily  able  to  Trace,  &  am  certain  they 
were  the  same,  which  produced  a  Gaol  Fever  in  other  Places,  &  am 
of  opinion  the  difference  betwixt  the  appearance  of  these  Fevers, 
arises  from  the  climate,  &  the  different  state  the  Bodies  are  in  when 
they  Imbibe  the  Contagion ;  if  so,  the  same  methods  which  are 
taken  to  prevent  Gaol  Fever,  will  equally  prevent  a  Yellow  Fever ; 
'Twas  in  the  Year  Forty  one,  I  first  saw  that  horrid  Disease  which 
was  then  imported  by  a  Number  of  Convicts  from  the  Dublin 
Gaol.     The  second  time  it  prevailed  it  was  indigenous  from  Evident 


i82  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

causes,  &  was  principally  confined  to  One  Square  of  the  City.  The 
third  time  it  was  generated  on  Board  of  Crowded  Ships  in  the 
Port,  which  brought  in  their  Passengers  in  Health,  but  soon  after 
became  very  Sickly.  I  here  saw  the  appearance  of  Contagion  like 
a  Dim  Sparkle  which  gradually  encreased  to  a  Blaze,  &  soon  after 
burst  out  into  a  terrible  Flame,  carrying  Devastation  with  it,  and 
after  continuing  two  Months  was  extinguished  by  the  profuse 
Sweats  of  Tertian  Fevers,  but  this  is  not  the  ordinary  course  of 
contagion,  'tis  usually  checked  by  the  Cool  Evenings  in  Septem'r 
and  dies  on  the  appearance  of  an  October  Frost. 

"  I  lately  visited  an  Irish  Passenger  Vessel,  which  brought  the 
People  perfectly  healthy  until  they  came  in  our  River.  I  found 
five  of  them  111,  and  others  Unwell,  &  saw  that  the  Fomes  of  in- 
fection was  spreading  among  them.  I  therefore  ordered  the  Ship 
to  lay  at  Quarantine,  to  be  well  purified  with  the  Streams  of 
Sulphur,  &  with  Vinegar,  directed  the  Bedding  and  Cloathing  of 
the  People  to  be  well  wash'd  &  Air'd  before  any  person  should  be 
permitted  to  land  out  of  her,  after  which  I  advised  separating  the 
Sick  from  the  Healthy.  This  was  done  by  putting  twelve  in  differ- 
ent Rooms  in  one  House,  &  fourteen  in  another,  out  of  the  City, 
the  conveniences  of  the  two  Houses  were  much  the  same,  in  one 
of  them  little  care  was  taken  of  the  sick,  who  were  laid  upon  the 
same  foul  beds,  they  (contrary  to  orders)  brought  on  shore  with 
them;  the  consequence  was,  that  all  the  Family  catch'd  the  dis- 
temper, &  the  Landlord  Died.  In  the  other  my  directions  were 
Strictly  observed,  the  Sick  had  clean  Clothes,  &  clean  Bedding, 
were  well  attended,  and  soon  Recovered,  without  doing  the  least 
Injury  to  any  person  that  visited  them;  which  confirms  observations 
I  had  often  made  before,  that  the  Contagion  of  Malignant  Fevers 
lies  in  the  Air  confined  &  corrupted  by  a  neglect  of  Rags  &  other 
filth  about  the  Helpless  Sick,  &  not  from  their  Bodies.  As  each 
of  these  heads  shall  be  a  Subject  of  a  future  Lecture,  I  shall  at 
present  only  mention  to  you  further,  a  few  of  those  Methods  which 
have  preserved  Individuals  from  prevailing  diseases. 

"  The  inhabitants  of  Hispaniola  have  found  the  wearing  Flannel 
shirts  to  be  a  preservative  against  Intermittent  Fevers  to  that 
sickly  Island,  &  as  that  Disease  is  known  to  arise  principally  from 
inhaling  a  great  Quantity  of  the  Humidity  of  the  Air,  I  make  no 
doubt  'twould  also  be  of  use  in  preventing  them  in  our  low  moist, 
level  countries. 

"  We  know  that  the  Bark  of  Sassafras  contains  many  Excellent 
Medicinal  Virtues,  my  Worthy  Friend  Mr.  Peter  Franklin  says 
that  he  being  in  the  Fall  of  the  Year  in  the  River  Nantikoke  in 
Maryland,  &  on  seeing  the  People  on  Shore  much  afflicted  with  in- 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  183 

• 

termitting  Fevers,  advised  the  Marriners  of  the  Ships  to  drink 
freely,  by  way  of  prevention,  of  that  Aromatic  and  Antiseptic  Medi- 
cine, but  coul'd  not  prevail  on  more  than  half  the  company  to  do 
it,  &  that  he  &  all  the  others  who  took  it,  enjoy'd  perfect  Health, 
whilst  not  a  single  Person  of  the  rest  escaped  a  severe  attack  of 
Epidemic  Disease,  I  have  Known  other  similar  Instances,  which  'tis 
needless  to  mention,  since  his  is  remarkably  pertinent. 

"  But  I  have  many  reasons  to  expect  that  a  more  agreeable  & 
equally  certain  preventive  against  our  Autumnal  Fevers,  will  be 
found  in  Sulphures  Chalybeate  Waters,  which  may  readily  be  pro- 
cured in  most  parts  of  America,  especially  where  those  Diseases 
are  most  prevalent.  A  spring  of  this  Kind  at  Gloucester  within  a 
few  Miles  of  this  Place  has  been  much  used  of  late,  and  has  been 
so  very  serviceable  to  Invalids,  it  has  the  appearance  of  being  a 
valuable  Conveniency  to  the  City.  Persons  under  various  Diseases 
took  Lodgings  in  the  Village  the  last  Season,  for  the  advantage 
of  drinking  the  Waters  at  the  Fountain  head,  &  though  the  Fall 
was  more  sickly  than  has  ever  been  known  in  the  Memory  of  Man, 
not  one,  who  went  there  for  health,  nor  any  one  of  the  Inhabitants 
near  the  Spaw,  who  drank  freely,  had  a  touch  of  the  prevailing 
Disease,  whilst  a  Major  part  of  those  that  did  not,  had  more  the 
appearance  of  Ghosts  than  living  Creatures.  There  were  two 
Houses  the  Habitations  of  Father  &  Son,  within  twenty  feet  of  each 
other,  the  Family  of  the  father  had  suflfered  greatly  from  Inter- 
mitting Fevers  the  preceding  Fall,  &  some  of  them  continued 
Invalids  'till  the  middle  of  Summer,  when  they  were  prevailed  on, 
to  take  the  Waters,  after  which  they  daily  recovered  Health,  Bloom 
&  Vigour;  &  passed  the  sickly  Season  without  a  Complaint,  whilst 
scarcely  a  person  in  that  of  the  Son,  who  did  not  take  them, 
escaped  a  severe  Illness.  'Tis  well  known  from  experience  that 
Mineral  Waters  are  not  only  the  most  Palatable,  but  the  most 
Salutary  parts  of  the  Materia  Medica,  &  that  the  effect  of  those 
which  are  pure  &  properly  impregnated  with  Chalybeate  Prin- 
ciples, strengthen  digestion  brace  &  counteract  the  Summers  Sun, 
dilute  a  thick  putrid  Bile  (the  instrument  of  mischief  in  all  cli- 
mates) and  immediately  wash  away  putrefaction  through  the 
Emunctories  of  the  Bowels,  Skin,  or  kidneys  and  therefore  appear 
to  be  natural  preservatives  against  the  effect  of  an  hot,  moist  &  putrid 
Atmosphere.  Whether  these  Waters  will  answer  my  sanguine 
expectations  or  not,  must  be  left  to  the  Decision  of  Time.  If 
they  .should  be  found  wanting,  that  ought  not  to  discourage  our 
further  pursuit,  for  since  providence  has  furnished  every  country 
with  defences  for  the  Human  Bodies,  against  the  inclemencies  of 
Heat  &   Cold,  why   shou'd   we   Question   whether   infinite  Wisdom 


1 84  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

&  Goodness  has  made  equal  Provision  against  all  other  natural 
injuries  of  our  Constitutions;  Experience  and  Reason,  encourages 
us  to  believe  it  has,  &  that  the  means  might  be  discovered  by  dili- 
gent investigation  were  our  researches  equal  to  the  Task,  the  above 
instances  are  therefore  related  to  convince  you,  that  the  prevention 
of  some  of  the  Epidemic  diseases  of  America  is  not  only  a  laudable 
&  rational  Pursuit,  but  is  more  within  the  limits  of  human  precau- 
tion than  has  generally  been  imagined,  and  to  excite  your  particular 
attention  to  the  improvement  of  this  Humane  and  interesting  part 
of  your  profession,  in  which,  &  all  other  useful  undertakings  I 
most  sincerely  wish  you  success. 

"  I  am  now  to  inform  you,  Gentlemen,  that  the  Managers  & 
Physicians  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  on  seeing  the  great  num- 
ber of  you  attending  the  School  of  Physic  in  this  City,  are  of  opinion, 
this  excellent  institution  likewise  affords  a  favourable  opportunity 
of  further  improvement  to  you  in  the  practical  part  of  your  Pro- 
fession, and  being  desirous  it  should  answer  all  the  good  purposes 
intended  by  the  generous  contributors  to  it,  have  alloted  to  me  the 
Task  of  giving  a  course  of  Clinical  &  Meterological  Observations 
in  it;  which  I  cheerfully  undertake  (though  the  season  of  my  Life 
points  out  relaxation  and  retirement  rather  than  new  Incumbrances,) 
in  hopes,  that  remarks  on  the  many  curious  cases  that  must  daily 
occur,  amongst  an  Hundred  &  thirty  sick  persons,  collected  together 
at  one  time,  may  be  very  instructive  to  you.  I  therefore  propose 
to  meet  you  at  stated  times  here,  &  give  you  the  best  information 
in  my  Power  of  the  nature  &  treatment  of  Chronical  Diseases,  and 
of  the  proper  management  of  Ulcers,  Wounds  and  Fractures,  I 
shall  show  you  all  the  Operations  of  Surgery,  &  endeavour,  from 
the  Experience  of  Thirty  Years  to  introduce  you  to  a  Familiar 
acquaintance  with  the  acute  diseases  of  your  own  country,  in  order 
to  which,  I  shall  put  up  a  compleat  Meteorological  Apparatus,  & 
endeavour  to  inform  you  of  all  the  known  Properties  of  the  atmos- 
phere which  surrounds  us,  &  the  effects  its  frequent  variations 
produce  on  Animal  Bodies,  and  confirm  the  Doctrine,  by  an  Exact 
register  of  the  Weather,  of  the  prevailing  Diseases,  both  here,  & 
in  the  Neighbouring  Provinces,  to  which  I  shall  add,  all  the  in- 
teresting observations  which  may  occur  in  private  practice,  and 
sincerely  wish  it  may  be  in  my  power  to  do  them  to  your  satis- 
faction." 

These  lecture  courses  of  Dr.  Bond's  proved  highly  suc- 
cessful and  were  attended  by  many  students.  There 
seems  at  times  to  have  been  considerable  difficulty  in  the 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  185 

collection  of  fees  from  the  students  for  the  attendance,  so 
that  on  April  2,  1770,  the  Board  of  Managers  passed  a 
resolution  that  no  student  should  be  permitted  to  attend 
who  could  not  show  a  certificate  stating  that  his  fee  had 
been  paid.  In  1774  the  cost  of  the  clinical  lecture  was 
made  five  pounds  per  course  to  "  all  students  attending 
lectures,  and  not  apprenticed  to  physicians." 

One  of  the  most  picturesque  of  the  physicians  and 
teachers  in  the  early  history  of  medicine  in  Philadelphia 
was  Dr.  Abraham  Chovet.  He  was  born  in  England, 
May  25,  1704,  received  his  medical  education  in  that 
country,  and  on  August  31,  1735,  he  was  appointed 
demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the  United  Company  of 
Barbers  and  Surgeons.  Afterwards  he  went  to  the  West 
Indies  and  lived  for  some  time  in  Jamaica.  In  1770  he 
and  his  family  were  obliged  to  flee  from  the  island  owing 
to  a  slave  insurrection,  and  they  settled  in  Philadelphia. 

The  following  description  of  the  old  doctor's  appear- 
ance was  given  to  Watson,^  the  annalist,  by  one  who  had 
often  seen  him : 


"  This  aged  physician  was  almost  daily  to  be  seen  pushing  his 
way  in  spite  of  his  feebleness,  in  a  kind  of  hasty  walk,  or  rather 
shuffle,  his  head  and  straight  white  hair  bowed  and  hanging  forward 
beyond  the  cape  of  his  black  old-fashioned  coat,  mounted  by  a 
small  cocked  hat,  closely  trimmed  upward  upon  the  crown  behind, 
but  projectingly  and  out  of  all  proportion  cocked  before,  and  seem- 
ingly the  impelling  cause  of  his  anxious  forward  movements,  his 
lips,  closely  compressed  (sans  teeth)  together,  were  in  constant 
motion,  as  though  he  were  munching  something  all  the  time;  his 
golden-headed  Indian  cane,  not  used  for  his  support,  but  dangling 
by  a  black  silken  string  from  his  wrist;  the  ferule  of  his  cane  and 
the  heels  of  his  capacious  shoes,  well  lined  in  winter  time  with 
thick  woolen  cloth,  might  be  heard  jingling  and  scraping  the  pave- 
ment at  every  step ;   he  seemed  on  the  street  always  as  one  hastening 

°  Annals  of  Philadelphia. 


i86  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

as  fast  as  aged  limbs  would  permit  him  to  some  patient  dangerously 
ill,  without  looking  at  any  one  passing  him  to  the  right  or  left." 

The  Pennsylvania  Hospital  still  possesses  a  wax  medal- 
lion of  him,  made  on  his  eightieth  birthday,  which  bears 
the  following  inscription :  "  Abraham  Chovet,  born  May 
25,  1704,  drawn  'Ma.j  25,  1784,  by  his  servant,  Dr.  Eck- 
hout." 

The  old  gentleman  was  a  great  wit,  and  many  amusing 
anecdotes  have  descended  concerning  him.  He  was  noted 
for  his  use  of  expletives,  which,  Watson  says,  were  held 
to  be  "  neither  useful  nor  ornamental."  Several  of  the 
stories  of  his  humor  are  worthy  of  repetition.  Happen- 
ing one  day  to  be  overtaken  by  a  rain-storm  when  at  the 
house  of  Samuel  Fisher,  a  well-known  Quaker,  the  latter 
lent  him  his  own  greatcoat  on  the  condition  that  while 
he  was  in  it  he  was  to  use  no  oaths,  to  which  the  doctor 
agreed.  When  he  brought  back  the  coat,  Fisher  said, 
"  Well,  doctor,  didst  thou  swear  whilst  thou  hadst  on 
my  coat?"  "  No,"  replied  the  doctor,  "but  there  was  a 
damnable  disposition  to  lie."  He  was  a  notorious  Tory, 
but  seems  to  have  been  humored  in  the  expression  of  his 
opinions  even  by  advanced  patriots. 

In  the  appendix  of  "  Christopher  jMarshall's  Diary" ''' 
the  two  following  stories  are  quoted  from  the  New  York 
Gazette  for  1828  :  Dr.  Chovet  one  day  entered  the  coffee- 
house, with  an  open  letter  in  his  hand,  at  the  hour  when 
many  merchants  were  in  the  habit  of  gathering  there. 

"  On  seeing  the  Doctor  they  all  surrounded  him,  enquiring  what 
news  he  had  in  that  letter.  ...  In  reply  to  this  inquiry,  he  said  that 
the  letter  contained  information  of  the  death  of  an  old  cobbler  in 
London,  who  had  his  stall  in  one  of  the  by-streets,  and  asked  the 
gentlemen  what  they  supposed  the  cobbler  had  died  worth.  One 
said  £5000,  another  £10,000,  and  another  £20,000  sterling.     '  No,  gen- 

'  Edited  by  William  Duane,  Philadelphia,  1839. 


\)H.    Ai'.UAllAM    ClIOVET. 
(Reprodnct-il   Irrnii   Norris's  "  EarK    Histor\   ol    Medicine  in   I'hiladelpliia.") 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  187 

tlemen,  no ;  you  are  all  mistaken ;  not  one  farthing,  gentlemen ;' 
running  out,  laughing  at  the  joke  at  the  expense  of  the  collected 
mercantile  wisdom  of  the  city." 

"Another  time  having  been  sent  for  to  the  Spanish  Minister, 
Don  Juan  Mirailles,  who  resided  in  old  Mr.  Chew's  house,  in  Third 
Street,  between  Walnut  and  Spruce  streets,  the  weather  being 
rather  unpleasant,  the  Minister  ordered  his  carriage  to  the  door 
to  convey  the  Doctor  home.  The  Doctor,  full  of  fun  and  joke, 
directed  the  coachman  to  drive  by  the  Coffee  House,  which,  as  he 
approached,  was  perceived  by  the  merchants,  who  immediately 
drew  up  in  order,  hats  off,  to  pay  their  respects  to  Don,  as  minister 
from  a  friendly  power.  The  Doctor  kept  himself  close  back  in 
the  carriage  until  directly  opposite  the  coffee-house,  the  gentlemen 
all  bowing  and  scraping,  when  he  pops  his  head.  '  Good  morning, 
gentlemen,  good  morning ;  I  hope  you  are  well ;  thank  you  in  the 
name  of  his  Majesty,  King  George,'  and  drove  off,  laughing  heartily 
at  having  again  joked  with  the  Philadelphia  Whigs." 

At  the  time  when  the  mob  carted  Dr.  John  Kearsley, 
Jr.,  the  son  of  the  architect  of  Christ  Church,  and  a 
violent  Tory,  through  the  streets,  Chovet  only  escaped 
the  same  fate  by  hiding  in  the  stable  of  Mr.  Marshall. 
As  a  rule,  however,  Dr.  Chovet,  so  far  as  his  politics  were 
concerned,  seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  an  amusing 
and  eccentric  old  gentleman  whose  idiosyncrasies  were 
harmless.  He  certainly  never  endured  the  gross  indigni- 
ties which  befell  so  many  of  his  fellow-Tories. 

Dr.  Chovet  brought  from  England  a  collection  of  wax 
models  and  dried  and  injected  anatomical  preparations, 
and  in  the  winter  season  of  1774-75  he  delivered  a  series 
of  anatomic  lectures  illustrated  by  them,  of  which  he 
made  the  following  announcement: 

"  At  the  Anatomical  Museum 

in    Videl's   Alley,    Second    Street,   on    Wednesday,   the    Seventh    of 
December  at  six  in  the  evening 

Dr.  Chovet 

will  begin  his  course  of  Anatomical  and  Physiological  Lectures,  in 
which  the  several  parts  of  the  human  body  will  be  demonstrated, 


i88  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

with  their  mechanism  and  actions,  together  with  the  doctrines  of 
life,  health  and  the  several  effects  resulting  from  the  actions  of 
the  parts ;  on  his  curious  collection  of  Anatomical  wax- works, 
and  other  natural  preparations ;  to  be  continued  the  whole  winter 
until  the  course  is  completed.  As  this  course  cannot  be  attended 
with  the  disagreeable  sight  or  smell  of  recent  disease  and  putrid 
carcases,  which  often  disgust  even  the  students  in  Physick,  as  well 
as  the  curious,  otherwise  inclined  to  this  useful  and  sublime  part 
of  natural  philosophy,  it  is  hoped  this  undertaking  will  meet  with 
suitable  encouragement. 

"  Tickets  to  be  had  for  the  whole  course  at  Dr.  Chovet's  house 
in  Second  Street,  Philadelphia." 

On  November  24,  1783,  Dr.  John  Foulke  received  per- 
mission from  the  board  of  managers  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital  to  use  one  of  the  upper  rooms  of  the  building 
known  as  the  "elabratory"  of  the  hospital  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  lectures  on  "  Chirurgical  and  Physical 
subjects  during  the  season."  He  was  not  only,  according 
to  Watson,  reckoned  "  the  best  surgeon  of  his  day,"  but 
also  "  the  next  best  skater"  in  the  city;  "  skating  '  High 
Dutch,'  and  being  able  to  cut  his  own  name  at  one 
flourish,  constituted  the  Doctor's  fame  as  a  skater."  In 
1784  he  opened  "An  Anatomical  Hall,"  with  a  "deter- 
mination to  put  the  character  of  a  Philadelphia  anatomist 
upon  a  higher  footing  than  it  had  ever  before  been,"  also 
asserting,  "  that  in  his  pursuit  he  was  determined  to  ob- 
serve every  attention  to  decency,  solemnity  and  punc- 
tuality." The  charge  was  twelve  dollars  a  course.  He 
continued  giving  these  courses  of  lectures  until  his  death, 
in  1796,  and  they  seem  to  have  been  very  largely  attended. 

There  were  several  other  lecture  courses  given  in  Phila- 
delphia towards  the  end  of  the  last  century  which  are 
worthy  of  note,  indicating  what  an  active  centre  the 
city  was  in  the  development  of  medical  education  on  this 
continent.  Dr.  John  Hannum  Gibbon,  who  was  a  Penn- 
sylvanian  by  birth,  graduated   from  the  University  of 


Library  and   Surgeons'   Hall   on    Inih   >iirti,   I'liila.  Iil|iliia,   I7g<i 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  189 

Edinburgh,  in  the  medical  department,  in  1786;  returned 
to  this  country  and  married  a  Miss  Heysham,  of  Phila- 
delphia, after  which  he  settled  in  the  latter  city,  on  Arch 
Street.  In  1789  and  for  some  years  afterwards  he  lec- 
tured on  the  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine."  He 
died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-six  years,  on  October  5, 
1795.  There  were  lectures  on  midwifery,  delivered  by 
Dr.  Benjamin  Duffield,  from  1793  until  his  death  in 
1799.  Dr.  Duffield  also  lectured  on  "  Diseases  of  Hos- 
pitals and  Jails"  and  "  The  American  Practice  of  Physic." 
According  to  Norris,  Drs.  Church  and  James  continued 
his  obstetric  lectures  after  his  death.  The  same  authority 
speaks  of  a  course  of  lectures  by  Dr.  Price,  of  London, 
delivered  in  Philadelphia  towards  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury, on  "  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physick"  and 
"  Midwifery  and  the  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children," 
and  of  the  course  on  obstetrics  given  by  Dr.  Dewees  in 
1797. 


190  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  EARLIEST  MEDICAL  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The   Medical   Department   of  the   University   of   Penn- 
sylvania. 

The  College  of  Philadelphia  was  founded  in  1749,  and 
had  been  in  existence  for  sixteen  years  before  a  medical 
department  was  organized  in  connection  with  it.  The 
credit  of  the  foundation  of  the  Medical  Department  is 
chiefly  due  to  Dr.  John  Morgan.  He  was  born  in  1736 
and  received  the  degree  of  A.B.  from  the  College  of 
Philadelphia  in  1757,  with  the  first  class  that  graduated 
from  that  institution.  He  studied  medicine  with  Dr. 
Redman  and  then  served  as  surgeon  in  the  war  against 
the  French.  In  1760  he  resigned  from  the  army  and 
went  to  Europe  to  pursue  his  medical  studies.  In  the 
preface  to  his  "  Discourse  upon  the  Institution  of  Medi- 
cal Schools  in  America"  ^  he  speaks  of  the  preparation 
he  had  undergone  for  his  career  as  a  teacher  as  follows : 

"  It  is  now  more  than  fifteen  years  since  I  began  the  study  of 
medicine  in  this  city,  which  I  have  prosecuted  ever  since  without 
interruption.      During   the    first   years    I    served   an   apprenticeship 

^  A  Discourse  upon  the  Institution  of  Medical  Schools  in 
America,  delivered  at  a  Public  Anniversary  Commencement,  held 
in  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  May  30  and  31,  1765,  with  a  Preface, 
containing,  amongst  other  things,  the  Author's  Apology  for  Intro- 
ducing the  Regular  Mode  of  Practising  Physick  in  Philadelphia. 
By  John  Morgan,  M.D.,  &c.,  and  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Medicine  in  the  College  of  Philadelphia.  Printed  and  sold 
by  William  Bradford:    1765. 


I  )i<.  John  Morgan. 
(Reproduced  from  Morris's  "Early  History  of  Medicine  in  Pliiladelpliia.") 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  191 

with  Dr.  Redman,  who  then  did,  and  still  continues  to  enjoy  a  most 
justly  acquired  reputation  in  this  city  for  superior  knowledge  and  ex- 
tensive practice  in  physic.  At  the  same  time  I  had  an  opportunity  of 
being  acquainted  with  the  practice  of  other  eminent  physicians  in 
this  place,  particularly  of  all  the  physicians  to  the  hospital,  whose 
prescriptions  I  put  up  there  above  the  space  of  one  year.  The 
term  of  my  apprenticeship  being  expired,  I  devoted  myself  for 
four  years  to  a  military  life,  principally  with  a  view  to  become 
more  skilful  in  my  profession,  being  engaged  the  whole  of  that 
time  in  a  very  extensive  practice  in  the  army  amongst  diseases  of 
every  kind.  The  last  five  years  I  have  spent  in  Europe,  under  the 
most  celebrated  masters  in  every  branch  of  medicine,  and  spared 
no  labor  or  expense  to  store  my  mind  with  an  extensive  acquaint- 
ance in  every  science  that  related  in  any  way  to  the  duty  of  a  physi- 
cian ;  having  in  that  time  expended  in  this  pursuit  a  sum  of 
money  of  which  the  very  interest  would  prove  no  contemptible 
income.  With  what  success  this  has  been  done,  others  are  to  judge 
and  not  myself." 

While  abroad  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  was  admitted  to  membership  in  the  College 
of  Physicians  of  Edinburgh  and  as  a  licentiate  of  the 
College  of  Physicians  of  London.  He  was  also  elected  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Belles-Lettres  of  Rome.  He 
seems  to  have  had  while  studying  abroad  the  definite  pur- 
pose of  fitting  himself  for  a  career  as  a  teacher  of  medi- 
cine. 

Carson  -  quotes  from  Thompson's  Life  of  Cullen  the 
following  extract  from  a  letter  written  by  Morgan  to 
Cullen  from  London,  November  10,  1764: 

"  I  am  now  preparing  for  America,  to  see  whether,  after  four- 
teen years  devotion  to  medicine,  I  can  get  my  living  without  turn- 
ing apothecary  or  practitioner  of  surgery.  My  scheme  of  instituting 
lectures  you  will  hereafter  know  more  of.  It  is  not  prudent  to 
broach  designs  prematurely,  and  mine  are  not  yet  fully  ripe  for 
execution." 

^History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 


192 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


Dr.  Morgan's  chief  associate  in  his  scheme  for  found- 
ing a  medical  school  was  Dr.  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  who 
was  also  a  native  of  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  born  in 
1736.  As  before  mentioned,  he  graduated  from  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey,  as  Princeton  was  then  called.  He 
studied  medicine  under  his  father,  and  then,  in  1757, 
went  to  Europe  to  complete  his  medical  education.  In 
London  he  studied  under  the  two  Hunters,  Hewson,  and 
McKenzie,  and  received  his  degree  of  M.D.  from  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1761,  and  returned  to  this 
country  in  1762.  Undoubtedly  he  and  Morgan,  whilst 
pursuing  their  studies  together  abroad,  had  talked  over  a 
medical  school  in  their  native  city.  When  Morgan  re- 
turned to  Philadelphia  in  1765  he  brought  the  following 
letter  from  Thomas  Penn  to  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the 
College  of  Philadelphia.  It  was  presented  to  the  Board 
of  Trustees  at  their  meeting  on  May  3,  1765. 

"  Gentlemen  : 

"  Dr.  Morgan  has  laid  before  me  a  proposal  for  introducing  new 
professorships  into  the  Academy  for  the  instruction  of  all  such  as 
shall  incline  to  go  into  the  study  and  practice  of  Physic  and  Sur- 
gery, as  well  as  the  several  occupations  attending  upon  these  useful 
and  necessary  arts.  He  thinks  his  scheme,  if  patronized  by  the 
Trustees,  will  at  present  give  reputation  and  strength  to  the  Insti- 
tution, and  though  it  may  for  some  time  occasion  a  small  expense, 
yet  after  a  little  while  it  will  gradually  support  itself,  and  even  make 
considerable  additions  to  the  Academy's  funds.  Dr.  Morgan  has 
employed  his  time  in  an  assiduous  search  after  knowledge  in  all 
the  branches  necessary  for  the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  has 
gained  such  an  esteem  and  love  from  persons  of  the  first  rank  in 
it,  that  as  they  very  much  approve  his  system,  they  will  from  time 
to  time,  as  he  assures  us,  give  him  their  countenance  and  assistance 
in  the  execution  of  it. 

"  We  are  made  acquainted  with  what  is  proposed  to  be  taught, 
and  how  the  lectures  may  be  adopted  by  you,  and  since  the  like 
systems  have  brought  much  advantage  to  every  place  where  they 
have  been  received,  and  such  learned  and  eminent  men  speak  favora- 
bly of  the  doctor's  plan,  I  could  not  but  in  the  most  kind  manner 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  193 

recommend  Dr.  Morgan  to  you,  and  desire  that  he  may  be  well 
received,  and  what  he  has  to  offer  be  taken  with  all  becoming 
respect  and  expedition  into  your  most  serious  consideration,  and 
if  it  shall  be  thought  necessary  to  go  into  it,  and  thereupon  to  open 
Professorships,  that  he  may  be  taken  into  your  service.  When 
you  have  heard  him,  and  duly  considered  what  he  has  to  lay  before 
you,  you  will  be  best  able  to  judge  in  what  manner  you  can  serve 
the  public,  the  Institution,  and  the  particular  design  now  recom- 
mended to  you. 

"  I  am,  Gentlemen,  your  very  affectionate  friend 

"  Thomas  Penn. 
"London,  February  15th,  1765." 

Dr.  Morgan  also  gave  the  Board  of  Trustees  letters 
which  he  had  procured  from  James  Hamilton  and  Rich- 
ard Peters,  former  trustees  of  the  institution,  but  at  that 
time  living  in  England. 

Dr.  Morgan's  project  met  with  the  immediate  approval 
of  the  board,  and  Dr.  Norris  ^  transcribes  their  minute 
on  this  occasion,  which  was  as  follows : 

"  College  of  Philadelphia,  May  3rd,  1765. 

"At  a  meeting  of  the  Trustees  held  this  day,  John  Morgan,  of 
this  city,  M.D.,  corresponding  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Surgery  at  Paris,  Licentiate  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  at 
London,  and  member  of  the  Arcadian  (Belles  Lettres)  Society  at 
Rome,  was  unanimously  elected  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Medicine  in  the  College  of  Philadelphia.  At  the  ensuing 
commencement  he  will  deliver  an  address  (which  will  be  soon 
afterwards  published),  in  order  to  show  the  expediency  of  insti- 
tuting medical  schools  in  this  seminary,  and  containing  the  plan 
proposed  for  the  same;  in  which  there  will  be  room  for  receiving 
professors  duly  qualified  to  read  lectures  in  the  other  branches  of 
medicine,  who  may  be  desirous  of  uniting  to  carry  this  laudable 
design  into  execution.  Dr.  Morgan's  Plan  has  been  warmly  recom- 
mended to  the  Trustees  by  persons  of  eminence  in  England,  and 
his  known  abilities  and  great  industry  give  the  utmost  reason  to 
hope  it  will  be  successful,  and  tend  much  to  the  public  utility." 

On  the  30th  of  j\Iay  of  the  same  year  Dr.  Morgan  de- 
livered his  "  Discourse  upon  the  Institution  of  Medical 

^  Early  History  of  Medicine  in  Philadelphia. 
13 


194 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


Schools  in  America."  He  had  written  this  when  in  Paris, 
and  it  had  undergone  a  careful  scrutiny  by  Dr.  Fothergill, 
Dr.  Hunter,  and  Dr.  Watson,  of  London.  In  it  he  recom- 
mended a  very  comprehensive  preliminary  education 
preparatory  to  the  study  of  medicine.  He  mentioned  the 
many  advantages  possessed  by  Philadelphia  as  a  medical 
centre,  pointing  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  the  only 
institution  of  that  kind  then  established,  and  calling  atten- 
tion to  the  many  eminent  Philadelphia  medical  men  who 
adorned  the  profession.  Dr.  Morgan's  address  contained 
the  following  prophecy,  which  has  been  so  amply  ful- 
filled : 

"  Perhaps  this  Medical  Institution,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  America, 
though  small  in  the  beginning,  may  receive  a  constant  increase  of 
strength,  and  annually  exert  new  vigour.  It  may  collect  a  number 
of  young  persons,  of  more  than  ordinary  abilities,  and  so  improve 
their  knowledge  as  to  spread  its  reputation  to  distant  parts.  By 
sending  these  abroad  duly  qualified,  or  by  exciting  an  emulation 
amongst  men  of  parts  and  literature,  it  may  give  birth  to  other 
useful  Institutions  of  a  similar  nature,  or  occasional  rise,  by  its 
example,  to  numerous  societies  of  different  kinds,  calculated  to 
spread  the  light  of  knowledge  through  the  whole  American  Conti- 
nent, wherever  inhabited." 

It  required  two  sittings  to  get  through  the  Commence- 
ment, one  on  the  30th,  the  second  on  the  31st  of  May. 
The  discourse  was  delivered  partly  on  the  first  and  partly 
on  the  second  day.  The  event  was  held  in  the  Academy 
building  on  Fourth  Street  near  Arch. 

In  September,  1765,  Dr.  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  was 
elected  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery.  He  had 
applied  for  the  position  in  the  following  letter : 

"  To  THE  Trustees  of  the  College,  etc. 

"  The  instituting  of  medical  schools  in  this  country  has  been  a 
favorite  object  of  my  attention  for  seven  years  past,  and  it  is  three 
years  since  I  proposed  the  expediency  and  practicability  of  teach- 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  195 

ing  medicine   in  all   its   branches   in   this   city,   in  a  public  oration, 
read  at  the  State  House,  introductory  to  my  first  course  of  Anatomy. 

■'  I  should  have  long  since  sought  the  patronage  of  the  Trustees 
of  this  College,  but  waited  to  be  joined  by  Dr.  Morgan,  to  whom 
I  first  communicated  my  plan  in  England,  and  who  promised  to 
unite  with  me  in  every  scheme  we  might  think  necessary  for  the 
execution  of  so  important  a  point.  I  am  pleased,  however,  to  hear 
that  you  gentlemen,  on  being  applied  to  by  Dr.  Morgan,  have  taken 
the  plan  under  your  protection,  and  have  appointed  that  gentleman 
Professor  of  Medicine. 

"  A  professorship  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  will  be  gratefully 
accepted  by,  gentlemen,  your  most  obedient  and  humble  servant 

"  WiLLi.\M  Shippen,  Jr. 

"  Phil.\delphia.  17th  September,  1765." 

The  following  announcement  appeared  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania Gazette  of  September  26,  1765  : 

"  As  the  necessity  for  cultivating  medical  knowledge  in  America 
is  allowed  by  all,  it  is  with  pleasure  we  inform  the  public  that  a 
Course  of  Lectures  on  two  of  the  most  important  branches  of  that 
useful  science,  viz..  Anatomy  and  Materia  Medica,  will  be  delivered 
this  winter  in  Philadelphia.  We  have  great  reason,  therefore,  to 
hope  that  gentlemen  of  the  Faculty  will  encourage  the  design  by 
recommending  it  to  their  pupils,  that  pupils  themselves  will  be  glad 
of  such  an  opportunity  of  improvement,  and  that  the  public  will 
think  it  an  object  worthy  their  attention  and  patronage.  In  order 
to  render  these  courses  the  more  extensively  useful,  we  intend  to 
introduce  into  them  as  much  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic, 
of  Pharmacy,  Chemistry,  and  Surgery  as  can  be  conveniently 
admitted. 

"  From  all  this,  together  with  an  attendance  on  the  practice  of 
the  physicians  and  surgeons  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  the  stu- 
dents will  be  able  to  prosecute  their  studies  with  such  advantage 
as  will  qualify  them  to  practice  hereafter  with  more  satisfaction  to 
themselves  and  benefit  to  the  community. 

"  The  particular  advertisements  inserted  below  specify  the  time 
when  these  lectures  are  to  commence,  and  contain  the  various  sub- 
jects to  be  treated  of  in  each  course,  and  the  terms  on  which  pupils 
are  to  be  admitted. 

"  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  M.D. 
"  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  in  the  College  of  Philadelphia 


196  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"John  Morgan,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Etc. 
"  Professor  of  Medicine  in  the  College  of  Philadelphia. 

"  Dr.  Shippen's  course  of  anatomical  lectures  will  begin  on 
Thursday,  the  14th  of  November,  1765 ;  it  will  consist  of  about 
sixty  lectures,  in  which  the  situation,  figure,  and  structure  of  all 
parts  of  the  human  body  will  be  demonstrated  on  the  fresh  subject, 
their  respective  uses  explained,  and  their  diseases,  with  the  indi- 
cations and  methods  of  cure,  briefly  treated  of;  all  the  necessary 
operations  of  Surgery  will  be  performed,  a  course  of  bandages 
given ;  and  the  whole  concluded  with  a  few  plain  and  general  direc- 
tions in  the  practice  of  midwifery.     Each  person  to  pay  six  pistoles. 

"  Those  who  incline  to  attend  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  and  have 
the  benefit  of  the  curious  anatomical  plates  and  casts  there,  to  pay 
six  pistoles  to  that  useful  charity. 

"  A  course  of  lectures  on  the  Materia  Medica  by  John  Morgan, 
M.D.,  etc.     Price  four  pistoles. 

"  This  course  will  commence  on  Monday,  the  i8th  day  of  No- 
vember, and  be  given  three  times  a  week  at  the  College,  at  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  till  finished,  which  will  last  between  three 
and  four  months. 

"  To  render  these  lectures  as  instructive  as  possible  to  students 
of  physic,  the  Doctor  proposes,  in  the  course  of  them,  to  give  some 
useful  observations  on  Medicine  in  general,  and  the  proper  manner 
of  conducting  the  study  of  physic.  The  authors  to  be  read  in  the 
Materia  Medica  will  be  pointed  out.  The  various  substances  made 
use  of  in  medicine  will  be  reduced  under  classes  suited  to  the 
principal  indications  in  the  cure  of  diseases.  Similar  virtues  irl 
different  plants,  and  their  comparative  powers  will  be  treated  of, 
and  an  inquiry  made  into  the  different  methods  which  have  been 
used  in  discovering  the  qualities  of  medicines,  the  virtues  of  the 
most  efficacious  will  be  particularly  insisted  upon ;  the  manner  of 
preparing  and  combining  them  will  be  shown  by  some  instructive 
lessons  upon  pharmaceutic  chemistry.  This  will  open  to  students 
a  general  idea  of  both  chemistry  and  pharmacy.  To  prepare  them 
more  effectually  for  understanding  the  art  of  prescribing  with 
elegance  and  propriety,  if  time  allows,  it  is  proposed  to  include  in 
this  course  some  critical  lectures  upon  the  chief  preparations  con- 
tained in  the  Dispensatories  of  the  Royal  College  at  London  and 
Edinburgh.  The  whole  will  be  illustrated  with  many  useful  prac- 
tical observations  on  Diseases,  Diet,  and  Medicines. 

"  No  person  will  be  admitted  without  a  ticket  for  the  whole 
course.  Those  who  propose  to  attend  this  course  are  desired  to 
apply  to  the  Doctor  at  least  a  week  before  the  lectures  begin.     A 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  197 

dollar  will  be  required  of  each  student  to  matriculate,  which  will 
be  applied  to  purchase  books  for  a  medical  library  in  the  College 
for  the  benefit  of  the  medical  students." 

There  was  at  one  time  a  disposition  to  award  the  credit 
of  the  idea  of  founding  a  medical  school  in  Philadelphia 
to  Dr.  Shippen,  but  Dr.  Norris  disposes  very  effectually 
of  the  claims  put  forth  on  his  behalf.  In  Dr.  Shippen's 
introductory  lecture  to  his  course  on  anatomy,  which 
he  delivered  in  the  State  House  in  1762,  he  mentioned 
the  founding  of  a  medical  school,  and  in  reference  to  the 
difficulties  under  which  the  study  of  medicine  was  pur- 
sued in  this  country  at  that  time  he  said, — 

"  All  these  may,  and  I  hope  will  soon  be  remedied  by  a  medical 
school  in  America,  and  what  place  in  America  so  fit  for  such  a  school 
as  Philadelphia,  that  bids  so  fair  by  its  rapid  growth  to  be  soon  the 
metropolis  .for  all  the  continent.  Such  a  school  is  properly  begun 
by  an  anatomical  class,  and  for  our  encouragement,  let  us  remember 
that  the  famous  school  of  physic  at  Edinburgh,  which  is  now  the 
first  in  Europe,  has  not  had  a  beginning  fifty  years,  and  was  begun 
by  the  anatomical  lectures  of  Dr.  Monro,  who  is  still  living." 

Norris  quotes  from  the  "  Discourse"  of  Dr.  Morgan, 
delivered  in  1765,  as  follows: 

"  It  is  with  the  highest  satisfaction  I  am  informed  from  Dr.  Ship- 
pen,  junior,  that  in  an  address  to  the  public  as  introductory  to  his 
first  anatomical  course,  he  proposed  some  hints  of  a  plan  for  giving 
medical  lectures  amongst  us.  But  I  do  not  learn  that  he  recom- 
mended at  all  a  collegiate  undertaking  of  this  kind.  What  led  me 
to  it  was  the  obvious  utility  that  would  attend  it,  and  the  desire  I 
had  of  presenting,  as  a  tribute  of  gratitude  to  my  Alma  Mater,  a 
full  and  enlarged  plan  for  the  institution  of  medicine  in  all  its 
branches,  in  this  seminary,  where  I  had  part  of  my  education,  being 
among  the  first  sons  who  shared  in  its  public  honors.  I  was  further 
induced  to  it  from  a  consideration  that  private  schemes  of  propa- 
gating knowledge  are  unstable  in  their  nature,  and  the  cultivation 
of  useful  learning  can  only  be  effectually  promoted  under  those  who 
are  patrons  of  science,  and  under  the  authority  and  direction  of  men 
incorporated    for   the   improvement   of   literature.  .  .  .  Dr.    Shippen 


198  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

having  been  concerned  already  in  tending  that  branch  of  medical 
science,  is  a  circumstance  favourable  to  our  wishes.  Few  here  can  be 
ignorant  of  the  great  opportunities  he  has  had  abroad  of  quali- 
fying himself  in  anatomy,  and  that  he  has  already  given  three 
courses  thereof  in  this  city,  and  designs  to  enter  upon  a  fourth  course 
next  winter." 

Norris  justly  comments  on  their  statements, — 

"  Dr.  Shippen  introduced  and  successfully  taught  a  single  branch 
of  medicine  in  1762,  but  took  no  steps  for  the  establishment  of  a 
medical  institution  upon  a  permanent  basis.  Dr.  Morgan  arrived  at 
home  in  April,  1765,  and  in  the  following  month  proposed  to  the 
Trustees  of  the  College  His  Plan  for  translating  medical  science  into 
their  seminary,  and  boldly  urged  upon  them  a  full  and  enlarged 
scheme  for  the  institution  of  medicine  in  all  its  branches." 

In  1766  Dr.  Shippen  began  his  course  on  the  i8th  of 
September,  and  Dr.  Morgan  his  on  the  25th  of  the  same 
month.     Morgan's  course  was  announced  as  follows : 

"  A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic 
will  be  delivered  for  the  benefit  of  medical  students,  with  a  prepara- 
tory course  on  Botany,  Chemistry,  and  the  Materia  Medica,  being 
the  substance  of  a  set  of  lectures  delivered  to  his  pupils  last  winter." 

As  Carson  '^  says,  "  This,  then,  in  reality  was  the  first 
course  of  lectures  on  the  practice  of  medicine." 

In  1766  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  College  awarded 
a  gold  medal  to  Dr.  Morgan  for  a  prize  essay,  concerning 
which  Carson  quotes  the  following  advertisement : 

"  College  of  Philadelphia,  March  6th,  1766. 
"  Whereas,  John  Sargent,  Esq.,  Merchant  of  London  and  Member 
of  Parliament,  hath  presented  to  this  College  a  Gold  Medal  for  the 
best  English  Essay  on  the  reciprocal  advantages  of  a  perpetual 
union  between  Great  Britain  and  the  American  Colonies,  notice  is 
hereby  given  by  order  of  the  Trustees,  that  the  said  Medal  will  be 

*  History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  199 

disposed  of  at  the  ensuing  Commencement  in  May,  for  the  best  Essay 
that  shall  be  produced  on  the  subject  proposed,  by  any  one  of  those 
who  have  received  any  degree  or  part  of  their  education  in  this 
College;  and,  as  the  said  subject  is  one  of  the  most  important 
which  can  at  this  time  employ  the  pen  of  the  patriot  or  scholar,  and 
is  thus  left  open  to  all  those  who  have  had  any  connection  with  this 
College,  either  as  students  or  graduates,  it  is  hoped  for  the  honor 
of  the  Seminary  as  well  as  their  own,  they  will  nobly  exert  them- 
selves on  a  subject  so  truly  animating,  which  may  be  treated  in  a 
manner  alike  interesting  to  good  men,  both  here  and  in  the  Mother 
Country." 

Dr.  Morgan  won  the  prize  over  eight  other  competitors. 

In  1767  the  following  rules  for  the  school  of  medicine 
were  drawn  up  by  the  medical  men  of  the  Board  of  Trus- 
tees, with  Provost  William  Smith  and  Drs.  Morgan  and 
Shippen.  They  were  adopted  at  a  meeting  of  the  Board 
of  Trustees  on  May  12,  1767,  and  were  subsequently 
published  in  the  Pennsylvania  Ga::ettc. 

"  College  of  Philadelphia,  July  27th,  1767. 

'■  At  a  meeting  of  the  Trustees,  held  the  twelfth  day  of  May  last, 
it  being  moved  to  the  Board  that  conferring  the  usual  degrees  in 
Physic  on  deserving  students  will  tend  to  put  the  Practice  of  Physic 
on  a  more  respectable  footing  in  America ;  the  motion  was  unani- 
mously agreed  to ;  and  the  following  Course  of  Studies  and  Quali- 
fications, after  mature  deliberation,  was  fixed  on  and  enacted  as 
requisite  to  entitle  physical  students  to  their  different  degrees. 

"For  A  Bachelor's  Degree  In  Physic: — 

"  I.  It  is  required  that  such  students  as  have  not  taken  a  Degree 
in  any  College  shall,  before  admission  to  a  degree  in  Physic,  satisfy 
the  Trustees  and  Professors  of  the  College  concerning  their  knowl- 
edge in  the  Latin  tongue,  and  in  such  branches  of  Mathematics. 
Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy  as  shall  be  judged  requisite 
to  a  medical  education. 

"  2.  Each  student  shall  attend  at  least  one  course  of  lectures  in 
Anatomy,  Materia  Medica,  Chemistry,  the  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Physic,  and  one  course  of  Clynical  [sic]  Lectures,  and  shall  attend 
the  Practice  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  for  one  year,  and  may  then 
be  admitted  to  a  Public  Examination  for  a  Bachelor's  Degree  in 
Physic,  provided  that  on  previous  examinations  by  the  Medical 
Trustees  and  Professors,  such  students  shall  be  judged  fit  to  undergo 


200  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

a  public  examination  without  attending  any  more  courses  in  the 
Medical  School. 

"  3.  It  is  further  required  that  each  student  previous  to  the 
Bachelor's  Degree,  shall  have  served  a  sufficient  apprenticeship  to 
some  reputable  Practitioner  in  Physic,  and  be  able  to  make  it  appear 
that  he  has  a  general  knovirledge  in  Pharmacy. 

"Qualifications  For  A  Doctor's  Degree  In  Physic: — 
.  "  It  is  required  for  this  Degree  that  at  least  three  years  have 
intervened  from  the  time  of  taking  the  Bachelor's  Degree,  and  that 
the  Candidate  be  full  tv^^enty-four  years  of  age,  and  that  he  shall 
write  and  defend  a  Thesis  publicly  in  the  College,  unless  he  should 
be  beyond  the  seas,  or  so  remote  on  the  Continent  of  America  as  not 
to  be  able  to  attend  without  manifest  inconvenience;  in  which  case, 
on  sending  a  written  thesis,  such  as  shall  be  approved  of  by  the 
College,  the  candidate  may  receive  the  Doctor's  Degree,  but  his  thesis 
shall  be  printed  and  published  at  his  own  expense. 

"  Fees  to  Professors. 

"  No  Professor  to  take  more  than  six  Pistoles  for  a  single  course, 
in  any  of  the  above  branches,  and  after  two  courses,  any  student  may 
attend  as  many  more  as  he  pleases  gratis. 

"  This  scheme  of  a  Medical  Education  is  proposed  to  be  on  as 
extensive  and  liberal  a  plan,  as  in  the  most  respectable  European 
Seminaries,  and  the  utmost  provision  is  made  for  rendering  a  Degree, 
a  real  mark  of  honour,  the  reward  only  of  distinguished  Learning 
and  Abilities.  As  it  is  calculated  to  promote  the  benefit  of  mankind 
by  the  improvement  of  the  beneficent  art  of  Healing,  and  to  afford 
an  opportunity  to  students  of  acquiring  a  regular  medical  educa- 
tion in  America,  it  is  hoped  it  will  meet  with  public  encouragement, 
more  especially  as  the  central  situation  of  this  city,  the  established 
character  of  the  Medical  Professors,  the  advantages  of  the  College, 
and  the  public  hospital,  all  conspire  to  promise  success  to  the  design. 
For  the  advantage  of  medical  students,  a  course  of  lectures  will  be 
given  by  the  Professor  of  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy 
each  winter  in  the  College,  where  there  is  an  elegant  and  compleat 
apparatus  provided  for  that  purpose;  and  where  medical  students 
may  have  an  opportunity  of  compleating  themselves  in  languages, 
or  any  parts  of  the  Mathematics  at  their  leisure  hours. 

"  Agreeably  to  the  foregoing  regulations  the  public  is  now  in- 
formed, that  on  the  first  Monday  in  November  next,  the  following 
courses  of  lectures  will  be  begun  by  the  respective  Professors,  viz : — 
A  compleat  course  of  lectures  on  Anatomy,  to  which  will  be  added 
all  the  operations  in  surgery,  and  the  mode  of  applying  all  the  neces- 
sary bandages,  etc.     A  course  of  Lectures  on  the  Theory  and  Prac- 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  201 

tice  of  Medicine,  which  will  be  preceded  by  a  general  explanation 
of  the  theory  of  Chemistry,  accompanied  with  some  necessary  opera- 
tions, to  render  a  knowledge  of  this  science  easy  and  familiar  to  the 
inquisitive  student. 

"A  course  of  clynical  lectures,  to  be  delivered  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Hospital,  wherein  the  treatment  of  both  acute  and  chronic 
diseases  will  be  exemplified  in  the  cases  of  a  good  number  of 
patients. 

"  Each  course  of  lectures  will  be  finished  by  the  beginning  of  May, 
in  time  for  those  who  intend  to  offer  as  candidates  for  a  Degree  in 
Physic,  to  prepare  themselves  for  the  examination  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  ensuing  year. 

"  Such  gentlemen  as  incline  to  attend  the  above  courses  are  de- 
sired to  apply  some  days  before  the  Lectures  begin,  to  furnish  them- 
selves with  the  necessary  tickets  of  admission." 

The  value  of  Dr.  Bond's  clinical  lectures  was  much  ap- 
preciated by  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  hospital,  as  in 
May,  1768,  the  following  entry  is  found  in  the  minutes 
of  their  meetings : 

"  Dr.  Bond  is  requested  by  the  Trustees  and  Professors  to  con- 
tinue his  Clynical  Lectures  at  the  Hospital,  as  a  Branch  of  Medical 
Education  judged  to  be  of  great  importance  and  benefit  to  the 
students." 

Carson  could  not  find  any  record  that  Dr.  Bond  was 
ever  appointed  to  a  professorship  in  the  Medical  College, 
but  he  continued  to  deliver  these  lectures  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital  until  his  death  in  1784. 

The  provost  of  the  College,  the  Rev.  Dr.  William 
Smith,  delivered  the  course  of  lectures  upon  natural 
philosophy.  The  following  announcement  was  issued 
regarding  them : 

"  College  of  Philadelphia,  December  17th,  1767. 
"At  the  request  of  the  Medical  Trustees  and  Professors,  the  sub- 
scriber having  last  winter  opened  a  course  of  Lectures  in  Natural 
and  Experimental  Philosophy,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Medical  Stu- 
dents, which  he  hath  engaged  to  continue  this  winter  on  an  extensive 
plan,  notice  is  hereby  given  that  on  Monday,  the  28th  inst.  at  12  oc, 


202  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

it  is  proposed  to  deliver  the  Introductory  Lecture  at  the  College. 
As  these  lectures  are  instituted  and  given  gratis,  with  the  view  to 
encourage  the  medical  schools  lately  opened,  and  to  extend  the  use- 
fulness and  reputation  of  the  College,  any  gentlemen  who  have 
formerly  been  educated  in  this  Seminary,  and  are  desirous  of  renew- 
ing their  acquaintance  with  the  above  mentioned  branches  of  knowl- 
edge, will  be  welcome  to  attend  the  course.  To  the  standing  use 
of  the  large  apparatus  belonging  to  the  College,  Mr.  Kinnersley  has 
engaged  to  add  the  use  of  his  electrical  apparatus  which  is  fixed 
there,  and  to  deliver  the  lectures  on  electricity  himself,  as  well  as  to 
give  his  occasional  assistance  in  other  branches ;  so  that  with  their 
advantages,  and  the  many  years  experience  of  the  subscriber  in 
conducting  lectures  of  this  kind,  it  is  hoped  the  present  course  will 
answer  the  design  of  its  institution  and  do  credit  to  the  Seminary. 

"  W.  Smith. 

"  N.B.  An  evening  lecture  in  some  branches  of  Mathematics, 
preparatory  to  the  philosophical  course,  is  opened  at  the  College." 

As  regards  the  fees  paid  by  students  we  have  at  first 
only  the  advertisements  of  the  individual  professors  as  a 
guide.  According  to  Carson,  the  first  regulation  respect- 
ing fees  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  is  found  in  their  minutes 
of  May  17,  1768,  and  is  as  follows: 

"  The  following  Rules  brought  forward  by  the  Medical  Committee 
were  agreed  to,  viz : — 

"  I.  Such  Medical  Students  as  propose  to  be  Candidates  for  De- 
grees, and  likewise  such  other  Medical  Students  as  shall  attend  the 
Natural  Philosophy  Lectures  now  given  by  the  Provost,  and  whose 
names  have  never  been  entered  in  the  College,  shall  enter  the  same, 
and  pay  the  usual  sum  of  Twenty  Shillings  Matriculation  Money. 

"  2.  Every  student  on  taking  the  Degree  of  Bachelor  of  Physic 
shall  pay  not  less  than  one  Guinea  to  each  Professor  he  has  studied 
under  in  the  College  from  the  time  of  his  entering  the  Medical 
Classes ;  and  likewise  the  usual  Fees  for  the  seal  to  his  Diploma, 
and  for  the  increase  of  the  Library. 

"  3.  Each  Medical  Student  who  shall  pay  one  Dollar  for  the  use 
of  the  Library  (exclusive  of  the  Fee  of  Commencements)  shall  have 
his  name  entered,  and  have  the  free  use  of  the  Books  belonging  to 
the  Medical  Library  of  the  College  during  his  continuance  at  the 
same  and  attendance  of  lectures  under  the  Medical  Professors." 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  203 

The  fees  for  single  courses  under  the  various  profes- 
sors had  been  previously  ordered  not  to  exceed  six  pis- 
toles, or  twenty  dollars,  a  course. 

The  first  Commencement  of  the  Medical  Department 
was  held  on  June  21,  1768,  and  Carson  reprints  from  the 
minutes  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  the  following  interest- 
ing account  of  the  occasion : 

'■  This  day  may  be  considered  as  the  Birth-day  of  Medical  Honors 
in  America.  The  Trustees  being  met  at  half  an  hour  past  nine  in  the 
forenoon,  and  the  several  Professors  and  Medical  Candidates,  in 
their  proper  Habits,  proceeded  from  the  Apparatus  Room  to  the 
Public  Hall,  where  a  polite  assembly  of  their  fellow-citizens  were 
convened  to  honor  the  Solemnity.  The  Provost  having  there  re- 
ceived the  Mandate  for  the  Commencement  from  his  Honor  the 
Governor,  as  President  of  the  Trustees,  introduced  the  business  of 
the  day  with  Prayers  and  a  short  Latin  Oration,  suited  to  the  occa- 
sion. The  part  alluding  to  the  School  of  Medicine  is  in  the  following 
language : — 

" '  Oh !  Factum  bene !  Vos  quoque  Professores  Medici,  qui 
magno  mummi,  temporis  et  laboris  sumpter,  longa  quoque  peregri- 
natione  per  varias  regiones,  et  populos,  domum  reduxistis  et  peri- 
tiam,  et  nobile  consilium  servandi,  et  rationali  praxi,  docendi  alios 
servare  valetudinem  vestrum  civium  Gratum  fecistis  omnibus,  sed 
pergratum  certe  peritis  illis  medicis  qui  artis  suae  dignitatis  conscii, 
praxin  rationalem,  et  juventutis  institutionem  in  re  medica  liberalem. 
hisce  regionibus,  ante  vos  longe  desideraverunt.' 

"To  this  succeeded — 

"  I.  A  Latin  oration,  delivered  by  Mr.  John  Lawrence,  '  De  Hon- 
oribus  qui  in  omni  aevo  in  veros  Medicinse  cultores  collati  fuerint.' 

"  2.  A  dispute  whether  the  Retina  or  Tunica  Chorides  be  the 
immediate  seat  of  vision?  The  argument  for  the  Retina  was  in- 
geniously maintained  by  Mr.  Cowell ;  the  opposite  side  of  the  ques- 
tion was  supported  with  great  acuteness  by  Mr.  Fullerton,  who  con- 
tended that  the  Retina  is  incapable  of  the  office  ascribed  to  it,  on 
account  of  its  being  easily  permeable  to  the  rays  of  light,  and  that 
the  choroid  coat,  by  its  being  opaque,  is  the  proper  part  for  stopping 
the  rays,  and  receiving  the  picture  of  the  object. 

"3-  Questio.  num  detur  Fluidum  Nervosum?  Mr.  Duffield  held 
the  affirmative,  and  Mr.  Way  the  negative,  both  with  great  learning. 

"4.  Mr.  Tilton  delivered  an  essay  'On  Respiration,'  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  was  performed  did  credit  to  his  abilities. 


204  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

'■  5.  The  Provost  then  conferred  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Medi- 
cine on  the  following  gentlemen,  viz :  Messrs.  John  Archer,  of  New 
Castle  Count)';  Benjamin  Cowell,  of  Bucks;  Samuel  DufSeld  and 
Jonathan  Potts,  of  Philadelphia;  Jonathan  Elmer,  of  New  Jersey; 
Humphrey  Fullerton,  of  Lancaster  County;  David  Jackson,  of  Ches- 
ter County ;  John  Lawrence,  of  East  Jersey ;  James  Tilton,  of  Kent 
County,  Delaware ;    and  Nicholas  Way,  of  Wilmington. 

"  6.  An  elegant  valedictory  oration  was  spoken  by  Mr.  Potts,  '  On 
the  Advantages  derived  in  the  Study  of  Physic,  from  a  previous 
liberal  education  in  the  other  sciences.' 

"  The  Provost  then  addressed  the  Graduates  in  a  brief  Account  of 
the  present  state  of  the  College,  and  of  the  quick  progress  in  the 
various  extensive  establishments  it  hath  already  made.  He  pointed 
out  the  general  causes  of  the  advancement  as  well  as  decline  of 
literature  in  different  Nations  of  the  World,  and  observed  to  the 
Graduates,  that  as  they  were  the  first  to  receive  medical  honors  in 
America,  on  a  regular  Collegiate  plan,  it  depended  much  on  them, 
by  their  future  conduct  and  eminence,  to  place  such  honors  in  esti- 
mation among  their  countrymen ;  concluding  with  an  earnest  appeal 
that  they  would  never  neglect  the  opportunities  which  their  profes- 
sion would  give  them,  when  their  art  could  be  of  no  further  service 
to  the  body,  of  making  serious  impressions  on  their  patients,  and 
showing  themselves  men  of  consolation  and  piety,  especially  at  the 
awful  approach  of  death,  which  could  not  fail  to  have  singular  weight 
from  a  lay  character. 

"  Dr.  Shippen,  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery,  then  gave  the 
remainder  of  the  charge,  further  inviting  the  Graduates  to  support 
the  dignity  of  their  Profession  by  a  laudable  perseverance  in  their 
studies,  and  bj'  a  Practice  becoming  the  character  of  a  gentleman ; 
adding  many  useful  precepts  respecting  their  conduct  towards  their 
patients,  charity  towards  all ;  and  with  reference  to  the  opportunity 
they  might  have  of  gaining  the  confidence  of  the  sick,  and  esteem  of 
every  one  who  by  their  vigilance  and  skill  might  be  relieved  from 
suffering,  and  restored  to  health. 

"  The  Vice-President  concluded  the  whole  with  Prayer  and 
Thanksgiving." 

The  newspaper  account  concludes,  "  and  the  whole  was 
honoured  with  the  presence  of  a  polite  and  learned  assem- 
bly, who  by  their  kind  approbation,  testified  the  satisfac- 
tion which  the  inhabitants  of  this  place  have  in  the  im- 
provement of  useful  knowledge  in  their  native  country." 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  205 

The  custom  of  conferring  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Medicine  was  maintained  until  1789,  when  it  was  dis- 
continued. 

Carson  ^  quotes  the  following  from  a  letter  written  by 
Dr.  Rush  to  Dr.  ^Morgan  as  early  as  1768 : 

"  I  have  read  the  laws  you  have  established  with  regard  to  the 
conferring  degrees  in  Physic,  and  have  shown  them  to  several 
gentlemen  in  this  place  [Edinburgh]  who,  upon  the  whole,  approve 
of  them.  Some  of  them  have  thought  that  conferring  Bachelor's 
Degrees  in  Physic  would  tend  to  depreciate  their  value,  as  few 
young  men  would  ever  have  leisure  enough  after  they  began  to 
practise,  to  return  a  second  time  to  the  College  in  order  to  write 
a  Thesis  or  go  through  the  other  necessary  forms,  previous  to  being 
admitted  Doctors  of  Physic.  Upon  this  account  they  have  pro- 
posed that  no  one  should  be  admitted  to  the  physical  honors,  until 
he  had  studied  there  two  or  three  years,  and  afterwards  published 
a  Thesis.  But  you  who  are  upon  the  spot  can  best  judge  of  the 
propriety  of  the  regulation." 

Dr.  Rush's  view  was  found  to  be  correct.  But  few  of 
those  who  got  the  degree  of  B.]\I.  ever  returned  for  that 
of  M.D. 

In  January,  1768,  Dr.  Adam  Kuhn  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Materia  Aledica  and  Botany  in  the  College. 
These  subjects  had  formerly  been  taught  by  Dr.  ^Morgan. 
His  election  is  recorded  by  the  trustees  in  the  following 
terms : 

"  Dr.  Adam  Kuhn  having  made  application  to  be  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany  and  Materia  Medica  in  this  College,  declaring  that 
he  would  do  the  utmost  in  his  power  to  merit  the  honor,  and  the 
Trustees  having  ample  assurance  of  his  abilities  to  fill  that  Pro- 
fessorship, for  which  he  is  likewise  particularly  recommended  by  the 
Medical  Trustees  and  Professors  belonging  to  the  College  itself, 
did  therefore  unanimously  appoint  him,  the  said  Dr.  Kuhn,  Professor 
of  Botany  and  Materia  Medica  in  this  College,  agreeably  to  his 
request." 

'"  Loc.  cit. 


2o6  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

It  would  have  been  impossible  for  the  trustees  to  have 
placed  a  more  suitable  man  in  the  chair  to  which  he  was 
elected.  He  was  born  in  1743,  first  studied  medicine  with 
his  father,  and  in  1761  went  abroad  and  studied  medicine 
at  the  University  of  Upsal  in  Sweden,  where  also  he 
pursued  the  science  of  botany  under  the  great  Linnaeus. 
The  latter  became  very  fond  of  him  and  considered  him 
one  of  the  ablest  of  his  pupils.  Subsequently  Dr.  Kuhn 
studied  medicine  in  London,  finally  going  to  Edinburgh, 
from  which  University  he  received  the  degree  of  M.D. 
in  1767.  He  returned  to  America  in  1768.  In  May  of 
that  year  he  lectured  on  botany.  The  course  was  an- 
nounced as  to  be  given  again  in  the  year  1769,  but  after 
that  was  dropped.  Dr.  Kuhn  lectured  for  twenty-one 
years  on  materia  medica. 

In  1769  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush  returned  from  Europe 
and  was  elected  Professor  of  Chemistry.  He  was  but 
twenty-four  years  old,  but  had  already  begun  to  make 
his  mark.  Born  in  1745,  he  had  graduated  from  Prince- 
ton in  1760,  and  then  spent  six  years  studying  medicine 
with  Dr.  Redman.  In  1766  he  went  to  Edinburgh,  and 
received  from  that  University  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1768. 
Dr.  Carson  quotes  the  following  extract  from  a  letter 
written  by  Rush  on  January  20,  1768,  when  a  student 
at  Edinburgh,  to  Morgan,  which  shows  that  he  was 
even  then  looking  forward  to  the  chance  of  filling  the 
chair : 

"  I  exult  in  the  happy  prospects,  which  now  open  upon  you,  of  the 
success  of  the  Medical  Schools  you  have  established  in  Philadelphia. 
The  scheme  you  have  published  for  conferring  degrees  in  Physic 
has  met  with  the  approbation  of  Dr.  Cullen  himself,  who  interests 
himself  warmly  in  everything  that  relates  to  your  reputation  or 
success  in  life;  he  thinks  himself  happy,  he  says,  in  educating  those 
young  men  to  whom  so  important  a  Medical  College  as  that  in 
Philadelphia  will  owe  its  foundation  and  future  credit.    I  thank  you 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  207 

for  the  pains  you  have  taken  to  secure  me  the  Professorship  of 
Chemistry.  I  think  I  am  now  master  of  the  science,  and  could 
teach  it  with  confidence  and  ease.  I  have  attended  Dr.  Black  for  two 
years  diligently,  and  have,  I  think,  received  from  him  a  comprehen- 
sive and  accurate  view  of  the  science,  together  with  all  his  late  im- 
provements in  chemistry,  which  are  of  so  important  a  nature  that 
no  man,  in  my  opinion,  can  understand  or  teach  chemistry  as  a 
science  without  being  acquainted  with  them.  ...  As  to  the  experi- 
ments you  speak  of  there  is  scarcely  one  of  them  but  what  I  have 
seen  twice  performed,  either  publickly  or  privately,  by  Dr.  Black. 
...  I  would  not,  however,  urge  your  interest  too  warmly  in  this 
affair ;  perhaps  I  may  disappoint  the  expectations  of  the  Trustees,  and 
prevent  a  person  better  qualified  from  filling  the  chair.  I  should  like 
to  teach  Chemistry  as  a  Professor,  because  I  think  I  could  show 
its  application  to  medicine  and  philosophy.  ...  I  should  likewise  be 
able  more  fully,  from  having  a  seat  in  the  College,  to  co-operate 
with  you  in  advancing  the  Medical  Sciences  generally." 

In  October,  1768,  he  must  have  been  sure  that  he  would 
be  elected,  as  he  wrote  to  Morgan : 

"  I  am  much  obliged  to  you  for  continuing  to  read  lectures  on 
Chemistry.  I  hope  to  be  in  Philadelphia  in  May  or  June  next,  so 
that  I  shall  relieve  you  from  the  task  the  ensuing  winter.  Is  it  neces- 
sary for  me  to  deliver  publickly  an  Inaugural  Oration?  Something 
must  be  said  in  favor  of  the  advantages  of  Chemistry  to  Medicine, 
and  its  usefulness  to  medical  philosophy,  as  the  people  of  our  country 
in  general  are  strangers  to  the  nature  and  objects  of  the  sciences." 

When  he  returned  to  this  country  he  brought  with  him 
the  following  letter,  dated  May,  1769: 

"  Gentlemen  :  Dr.  Rush  having  been  recommended  to  me  by 
Dr.  Fothergill  as  a  very  expert  Chymist,  and  the  Doctor  having 
further  recommended  to  me  to  send  a  Chymical  Apparatus  to  the 
College,  as  a  Thing  that  will  be  of  great  use,  particularly  in  the 
tryal  of  ores,  I  send  you  such  as  Dr.  Fothergill  thought  necessary, 
under  the  care  of  Dr.  Rush,  which  I  desire  your  acceptance  of.  I 
recommend  Dr.  Rush  to  your  notice,  and  humbly  wishing  success  to 
the  College,  remain,  with  great  regard 

"  Your  very  affectionate  friend 

"  Thos.   Fenn. 

"  To  THE  Trustees  of  the  College  of  Philadelphia." 


2o8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Dr.  Rush  applied  to  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  the  posi- 
tion in  the  following  letter : 

"  Gentlemen  : 

"  As  the  Professorship  of  Chemistry,  which  Dr.  Morgan  hath 
some  time  supplied,  is  vacant,  I  beg  to  offer  myself  as  a  Candidate 
for  it.  Should  you  think  proper  to  honor  me  with  the  Chair,  you 
may  depend  upon  my  doing  anything  that  lies  within  my  power  to 
discharge  the  duties  of  a  Professor,  and  to  promote  the  reputation 
and  interest  of  your  College. 

"  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  with  the  greatest  respect 
"  Your  most  obedient,  humble  servant, 

"  Benj.  Rush. 

"  Philadelphia,  July  31,  1769." 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  on  August  i, 
1769,  he  was  unanimously  elected  to  the  chair. 

Carson  justly  draws  attention  to  the  youthfulness  of 
the  professors  in  the  yet  young  Faculty  of  Medicine. 
Rush  was  but  twenty-four,  Kuhn  twenty-eight,  Shippen 
thirty-three,  and  Morgan  thirty-four.  Dr.  Bond,  who 
may  be  considered  as  the  faculty's  lecturer  on  clinical 
medicine,  was  only  a  little  past  the  age  of  fifty. 

The  Pennsylvania  Ga:2ettc  for  July  6,  1769,  contains 
the  following  account  of  the  second  Commencement  of 
the  Medical  Department: 

"  Commencement  of  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  June  28,  1769. 

"  The  Degree  of  Bachelor  of  Medicine  was  conferred  on  James 
Armstrong,  Josias  Carroll  Hall,  John  Hodge,  John  Houston,  Thomas 
Pratt,  Alexander  Skinner,  Myndert  Veeder,  and  John  Winder. 

"  The  Medical  Exercises  were  the  following : — 

"  An  oration  in  honor  of  Medicine,  by  Mr.  Hall. 

"  A  Forensic  Dispute,  whether  Medicine  hath  done  most  good  or 
harm  in  the  world,  by  Messrs.  Alexander  Skinner  and  John  Hodge. 

"  An  oration  on  the  most  probable  method  of  obtaining  a  good  old 
age,  by  Mr.  John  Winder. 

"  In  the  composition  of  these  exercises  the  young  gentlemen  gave 
full  proofs  of  learning,  as  well  as  a  thorough  acquaintance  with 
their  subjects  and  the  History  of  Physic,  and  they  were  honoured 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  209 

with  the  close  attention  and  warm  approbation  of  the  audience.  Mr. 
Skinner's  part  of  the  Forensic  Dispute,  in  particular,  seemed  to 
afford  singular  entertainment,  from  the  candid  freedom  which  he 
took  with  his  own  Profession,  and  the  very  humorous  manner  in 
which  he  attempted  to  prove  that  Medicine  had  done  more  harm 
than  good  in  the  world;  which  Position  of  his  was,  however,  very 
seriously  and  fully  replied  to  by  Mr.  Hodge.  To  this  succeeded  a 
very  solemn  and  interesting  charge,  in  which  the  Provost  addressed 
himself  chiefly  to  the  graduates  in  the  arts,  adding,  with  respect  to 
the  graduates  in  Physic,  that  he  had  prevailed  on  a  gentleman  of 
their  own  Profession  whose  precepts  would  receive  Dignity  from 
his  years  and  experience,  to  lay  before  them  what  he  thought  requisite 
as  well  for  the  honour  of  the  College,  as  for  promoting  their  own 
future  honour  and  usefulness  in  life.  This  part  was  accordingly 
performed  by  Dr.  Thomas  Bond,  in  a  manner  so  truly  feeling  and 
affectionate  that  it  could  not  fail  to  make  a  serious  impression  on 
those  for  whom  it  was  designed." 

The  Commencement  of  1771  was  distinguished  by  the 
return  of  four  of  the  graduates  who  had  received  the 
degree  of  M.B.  in  1768  to  get  the  degree  of  M.D.  Dr. 
Carson  quotes  from  the  minutes  of  the  Board  of  Trustees 
the  regulations  regarding  the  steps  essential  to  the  con- 
ferring of  such  a  degree : 

"  Minutes  of  Board  of  Trustees,  May  20,  1771,  Agreed  to  the 
explanation  made  by  the  Faculty  of  the  Clause  for  examining  the 
Candidates  for  a  Doctor's  Degree  in  Physic,  which  is  as  follows : — 

"  That  such  Candidates  be  examined  on  their  Thesis  before  the 
day  of  Commencement,  and  on  that  day,  immediately  before  receiving 
their  Degree,  they  be  asked  a  few  Questions  in  Latin  on  the  subject 
of  their  Thesis,  which  they  are  to  answer  in  the  same  language. 

"  It  is  the  order  of  the  Trustees  that  the  Fee  for  the  Degree  of 
Doctor  in  Physic,  be  to  the  Provost  one  Guinea,  and  one  Guinea 
to  each  of  the  Medical  Professors,  and  that  the  Public  Commence- 
ment be  held  on  Friday,  June  28th. 

"  It  is  ordered  that  all  the  Fees  on  the  Degrees  be  paid  or  set- 
tled for  before  the  conferring  of  Degrees." 

The  Commencement  was  held  on  the  28th  of  June, 
1771: 

14 


2IO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  The  Degree  of  Bachelor  of  Physic  was  conferred  on  Benjamin 
Alison,  Jonathan  Easton,  John  Kuhn,  Frederick  Kuhn,  Bodo  Otto, 
Robert  Pottinger  and  William  Smith. 

"  Messrs.  Jonathan  Elmer,  of  N.  J.,  Jonathan  Potts,  of  Potts- 
grove,  Pa.,  James  Tilton,  of  Dover,  and  Nicholas  Way,  of  Wil- 
mington, then  presented  themselves,  agreeably  to  the  Rules  of  the 
College,  to  defend,  in  Latin,  the  Dissertations  printed  for  the  Degree 
of  Doctor  in  Physic. 

"  Mr.  Elmer's  Piece,  '  De  Causis  et  Remediis  sitis  in  Febribus,' 
was  impugned  by  Dr.  Kuhn,  Professor  of  Botany  and  Materia 
Medica. 

"  Mr.  Potts's,  '  De  Febribus  intermittentibus  potissinum  tertianis,' 
was  impugned  by  Dr.  Morgan,  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Physic. 

"  Mr.  Tilton's,  '  De  Hydrope,'  was  impugned  by  Dr.  Shippen, 
Professor  of  Anatomy. 

"  Mr.  Way's,  '  De  Variolarum  Insitione,'  was  impugned  by  Dr. 
Rush,  Professor  of  Chemistry. 

"Each  of  the  candidates  having  judiciously  answered  the  objec- 
tions made  to  some  parts  of  their  Dissertations,  the  Provost  con- 
ferred upon  them  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Physic,  with  particular 
solemnity,  as  the  highest  mark  of  honour  which  they  could  receive 
in  the  Profession. 

"  Dr.  Morgan,  who  was  appointed  to  that  part  of  the  Business, 
entered  into  a  particular  account  of  those  Branches  of  study  which 
the  Medical  Gentlemen  ought  still  to  prosecute  with  unremitted  Dili- 
gence, if  they  wished  to  be  eminent  in  their  Profession,  laying  down 
some  useful  rules  for  an  honourable  practice  in  the  Discharge  of 
it.  He  observed  that  the  '  oath'  which  was  prescribed  by  Hippoc- 
rates to  his  Disciples  had  been  generally  adopted  in  Universities  and 
Schools  of  Physic  on  like  occasions,  and  that  laying  aside  the  form 
of  oaths,  the  College,  which  is  of  a  free  spirit,  wished  only  to  bind 
its  Sons  and  Graduates  by  the  ties  of  Honour  and  Gratitude,  and 
that  therefore  he  begged  leave  to  impress  upon  those  who  had  re- 
ceived the  distinguished  Degree  of  Doctor  that  as  they  were  among 
the  foremost  sons  of  the  Institution,  and  as  the  Birth  Day  of  its 
Medical  Honours  had  arisen  upon  them  with  auspicious  lustre,  they 
would,  in  their  practice,  consult  the  safety  of  their  Patients,  the 
good  of  the  community,  and  the  dignity  of  their  Profession,  so  that 
the  Seminary  from  which  they  derived  their  Titles  in  Physic,  might 
never  have  cause  to  be  ashamed  of  them." 

In  the  winter  of  1772-73  Dr.  Morgan  went  to  the 
West  Indies  to  try  and  get  subscriptions  for  the  College 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  211 

among  the  rich  colonists  there.  He  managed  to  turn 
over  two  thousand  pounds  to  the  College  trustees. 

The  number  of  students  seems  to  have  pretty  steadily 
increased  until  the  Revolution  came  along  and  gave  a 
temporary  check  to  the  progress  of  medical  education  in 
Philadelphia.  Morgan,  Shippen,  and  Rush  all  became 
eminent  in  the  Continental  army,  Rush  being  also  a 
member  of  Congress  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  Two  of  those  who  had 
received  the  degree  of  M.B.  in  1768,  and  of  M.D.  in 
1 77 1,  became  prominent  in  connection  with  the  Conti- 
nental army, — -namely,  Dr.  James  Tilton  and  Dr.  Jona- 
than Potts. 

During  the  war  lectures  seem  to  have  been  occasion- 
ally given,  but  there  was  great  trouble  in  the  attempt 
to  maintain  any  manner  of  systematic  instruction.  Some 
of  the  trustees  were  Tories,  although  most  of  them  were 
Whigs.  On  November  2'j,  1779,  the  Legislature  passed 
an  act  repealing  the  charter  of  the  College  of  Philadelphia 
and  conferring  all  the  powers  and  privileges  implied  in 
it  upon  "  The  University  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania." 

The  trustees  of  the  University,  at  a  meeting  held  De- 
cember 8,  1779,  passed  a  resolution, — 

"  That  Dr.  Shippen,  sen.,  Dr.  Bond,  and  Dr.  Hutchinson  be  a 
Committee  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  late  Medical  School,  as 
it  stood  in  the  late  College,  and  what  is  the  establishment  thereof 
in  Foreign  Universities,  and  to  digest  a  plan,  for  the  consideration 
of  the  Board,  for  establishing  the  school  on  the  most  respectable 
footing.  That  the  said  Committee  do  request  the  several  Medical 
Professors  in  the  mean  time  to  proceed  in  their  lectures  as  here- 
tofore." 

On  May  11,  1780,  the  trustees  resolved  "that  the 
former  Medical  Professors  be  requested  to  examine  such 
candidates  as  shall  apply  to  them." 

In  1780  the  degree  of  B.M.  was  conferred  on  William 


212  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

W.  Smith  and  Ebenezer  Crosby,  and  that  of  M.D.  on 
David  Ramsay. 

The  trustees  experienced  the  greatest  difficulty  in  find- 
ing medical  men  willing  to  occupy  professorships  under 
them.  There  was  much  sore  feeling  on  the  part  of  the 
friends  of  the  old  College  against  the  new  University. 
Dr.  George  B.  Wood,  in  his  *'  History  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,"  goes  into  the  circumstances  which  led 
up  to  the  overthrow  of  the  College  and  the  founding  of 
the  University,  and  shows  that  in  their  zeal  to  make  the 
new  institution  as  completely  American  as  possible  the 
Legislature  did  scant  justice  to  the  claims  of  the  old. 
Dr.  Shippen  was  the  only  professor  in  the  College  who 
at  once  accepted  a  professorship  in  the  University.  Dr. 
Hutchinson  declined  successively  the  chair  of  Practice 
and  of  Chemistry.  Dr.  Tilton  declined  the  chair  of 
Materia  Medica.  Dr.  Bond,  however,  consented  to  com- 
bine a  course  of  lectures  on  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  with  his  clinical  lectures.  Later,  Dr.  Rush,  in 
1 78 1,  lectured  on  medicine  and  on  chemistry. 

In  1782  the  degree  of  M.B.  was  conferred  on  eight 
candidates. 

In  November,  1783,  the  professors  of  the  College 
finally  agreed  to  accept  again  their  old  chairs,  and  for 
some  years  things  appear  to  have  run  comparatively 
smoothly. 

The  friends  of  the  College,  however,  had  been  working 
continuously  for  the  repeal  of  the  bill  which  had  abro- 
gated its  charter,  and  were  finally  successful,  for  on 
March  6,  1783,  the  repeal  was  passed,  and  the  charter  of 
the  College  once  more  became  effective. 

Benjamin  Franklin  was  in  the  forefront  of  those  who 
fought  for  the  rights  of  the  College.  He  had  been  in 
Europe  at  the  time  the  bill  constituting  the  University 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  213 

had  been  passed.  The  founders  of  the  University  had 
taken  the  liberty  of  making  him  one  of  its  trustees, 
but  immediately  on  his  return  he  had  withdrawn  his 
name  and  joined  forces  with  his  old  colleagues  of  the 
College. 

As  soon  as  the  bill  restoring  its  rights  was  passed  the 
trustees  of  the  College  proceeded  to  restore  its  former 
medical  professors  to  their  positions.  Dr.  William  Ship- 
pen,  Jr.,  became  once  more  Professor  of  Anatomy,  Dr. 
Adam  Kuhn  of  Botany  and  Materia  Medica,  and  Dr. 
Benjamin  Rush  of  Chemistry.  Dr.  Morgan  was  re- 
elected to  the  professorship  of  the  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Medicine,  but  he  was  ill  at  the  time,  and  died  in  Octo- 
ber, 1789,  without  ever  resuming  its  duties. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  Dr.  Shippen  was  a  professor 
in  both  the  College  and  the  University,  in  spite  of  the 
rivalry  existing  between  the  two  institutions. 

Upon  the  death  of  Dr.  Morgan,  in  October,  1789,  Dr. 
Rush  was  elected  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Medicine  in  the  College.  In  the  same  month  Dr. 
Adam  Kuhn  resigned  the  professorship  of  Chemistry  in 
the  College  to  become  Professor  of  the  Practice  of  Medi 
cine  in  the  University. 

Dr.  Rush  was  succeeded  as  Professor  of  Chemistry  in 
the  College  by  Dr.  Caspar  Wistar,  who  was  also  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Institutes  of  Physics.  Two  other  professor- 
ships were  filled  by  the  election  of  Dr.  Samuel  Griffitts 
to  be  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  and  Pharmacy,  and 
of  Dr.  Benjamin  Smith  Barton  to  be  Professor  of 
Natural  History  and  Botany. 

In  December,  1789,  Dr.  James  Hutchinson  was  elected 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Materia  Medica  in  the  Uni- 
versity. Thus  there  were  two  rival  medical  institutions 
established  in  a  field  which  was  not  more  than  sufficient 


214  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

for  one,  and  for  some  years  this  unfortunate  condition 
prevailed. 

In  1789  the  College,  as  has  been  mentioned,  resolved 
to  abolish  the  custom  of  bestowing  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Medicine.  The  University,  however,  continued  to 
bestow  it. 

On  November  17  of  that  year  the  trustees  of  the  Col- 
lege published  in  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette  the  following 
rules  in  regard  to  the  conferring  of  medical  degrees : 

"  I.  No  person  shall  be  received  as  a  Candidate  for  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  until  he  has  arrived  at  the  age  of  tw^enty-one 
years,  and  has  applied  himself  to  the  ^tudy  of  Medicine  in  the  College 
for  at  least  two  years.  Those  Students,  candidates  who  reside  in  the 
City  of  Philadelphia,  or  within  five  miles  thereof,  must  have  been 
the  pupils  of  some  respectable  practitioner  for  the  space  of  three 
years,  and  those  who  may  come  from  the  country  and  from  any 
greater  distance  than  five  miles  must  have  studied  with  some  reputa- 
ble physician  there  for  at  least  two  years. 

"  2.  Every  candidate  shall  have  regularly  attended  the  lectures 
of  the  following  Professors,  viz.,  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery;  of 
Chymistry  and  the  Institutes  of  Medicine ;  of  Materia  Medica  and 
Pharmacy ;  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine ;  the  Botanical 
lectures  of  the  Professor  of  Natural  History  and  Botany;  and  a 
course  of  lectures  on  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy. 

"  3.  Each  candidate  shall  signify  his  intention  of  graduating  to 
the  Dean  of  the  Medical  Faculty,  at  least  two  months  before  the 
time  of  graduation,  after  which  he  shall  be  examined  privately  by  the 
Professors  of  the  different  branches  of  medicine. 

"  If  remitted  to  his  studies  the  Professors  shall  hold  themselves 
bound  not  to  divulge  the  same;  but  if  he  is  judged  to  be  properly 
qualified,  a  medical  question  and  a  case  shall  then  be  proposed  to 
him,  the  answer  and  treatment  of  which  he  shall  submit  to  the 
medical  Professors.  If  these  performances  are  approved,  the  Can- 
didate shall  then  be  admitted  to  a  public  examination  before  the 
Trustees,  the  Provost,  Vice  Provost,  Professors  and  Students  of 
the  College ;  after  which  he  shall  offer  to  the  inspection  of  each  of 
the  Medical  Professors  a  Thesis,  written  in  the  Latin  or  English 
Language  (at  his  own  option)  on  a  medical  subject.  This  Thesis, 
approved  of,  is  to  be  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  Candidate,  and 
defended  from  such  objections  as  may  be  made  to  it  by  the  Medical 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  215 

Professors,  at  a  Commencement  to  be  held  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
ferring degrees,  on  the  first  Wednesday  of  June  every  year. 

"  Bachelors  in  Medicine  who  wish  to  be  admitted  to  the  Degree 
of  Doctor  in  Medicine,  shall  publish  and  defend  a  Thesis  agreeably 
to  the  rules  above  mentioned. 

"  The  different  Medical  Lectures  shall  commence  annually  on  the 
first  Monday  in  November,  the  lectures  in  Natural  and  Experimental 
Philosophy  about  the  same  time,  and  the  lectures  on  Botany  on  the 
first  Wednesday  in  April. 

"  Benjamin   Franklin, 
"  President  of  the  Board  of  Trustees. 
"  William  Smith, 
"  Provost  of  the  College  and  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trustees." 

In  1 79 1  the  two  schools  agreed  that  it  was  to  the  best 
interests  of  both  of  them  to  unite.  They  petitioned  the 
Legislature  for  such  union,  and  on  September  30,  1791, 
an  act  was  passed  uniting  the  College  of  Philadelphia  and 
the  University  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  under  the 
title  of  "  The  University  of  Pennsylvania." 

In  his  introductory  lecture  in  November,  1791,  Dr. 
Rush  referred  to  this  auspicious  union  as  follows : 

"  I  should  do  violence  to  my  feelings  should  I  proceed  to  the 
subjects  of  the  ensuing  course  of  lectures,  without  first  congratu- 
lating you  upon  the  union  of  the  two  Medical  Schools  of  Philadel- 
phia, under  a  Charter  founded  upon  the  most  liberal  concessions  by 
the  gentlemen  who  projected  it,  and  upon  the  purest  principles  of 
patriotism  in  the  Legislature  of  our  State.  By  means  of  this  event, 
the  ancient  harmony  of  the  different  professors  of  medicine  will  be 
restored,  and  their  united  efforts  will  be  devoted,  with  accumulated 
force,  towards  the  advancement  of  our  Science." " 

All  the  professors  of  both  the  institutions  retained  posi- 
tions in  the  new  University.  The  professorships  were 
held  as  follows:  Dr.  William  Shippen  was  Professor  of 
Anatomy,  Surgery,  and  Midwifery,  of  which  subjects 
Dr.  Caspar  Wistar  was  Adjunct  Professor;    Dr.  Adam 

'Carson,  History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania. 


2i6  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Kuhn  was  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medi- 
cine; Dr.  Benjamin  Rush  was  Professor  of  the  Institutes 
of  Medicine  and  Qinical  Medicine;  Dr.  James  Hutchin- 
son was  Professor  of  Chemistry;  Dr.  Samuel  P.  Griffitts 
was  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  and  Pharmacy;  Dr. 
Benjamin  Smith  Barton  was  Professor  of  Botany  and 
Natural  History. 

The  above-named  gentlemen  were  all  elected  on  Janu- 
ary 23,  1792.  On  April  3  of  the  same  year  Dr.  John 
Ewing  was  elected  Professor  of  Natural  and  Experi- 
mental Philosophy. 

In  the  new  institution  natural  history  and  botany  were 
made  elective  subjects.  The  degree  of  B.M.  was  dropped 
and  that  of  M.D.  alone  conferred. 

In  1793  Dr.  James  Hutchinson  died  of  yellow  fever, 
and  on  January  7,  1794,  Dr.  John  Carson  was  elected 
Professor  of  Chemistry  in  his  place.  Dr.  Carson  died 
before  he  could  assume  his  duties,  and  the  chair  was  then 
offered  to  the  famous  Dr.  Priestley,  who  declined  it  be- 
cause of  ill-health  and  a  desire  for  plenty  of  time  in  which 
to  devote  himself  to  original  research.  The  chair  was 
finally  filled  by  the  appointment,  on  July  7,  1795,  of  Dr. 
James  Woodhouse. 

In  1796  Dr.  Griffitts  resigned  the  professorship  of 
Materia  Medica.  He  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Benjamin 
Smith  Barton,  who,  however,  still  retained  his  other 
professorship. 

Dr.  Adam  Kuhn  resigned  as  Professor  of  the  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Medicine  in  1797.  Dr.  Rush  performed 
Dr.  Kuhn's  duties  until  1805,  in  which  year  the  two 
chairs  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine  and  of 
the  Institutes  and  Clinical  Medicine  were  combined  and 
he  was  elected  Professor. 

Surgery,   Anatomy,   and   Obstetrics  remained  as  one 


Dr.   I'iiimi-  S^■^(■.   Pmvsick. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  217 

professorship  until  1805,  when  Dr.  Physick  was  elected 
Professor  of  Surgery. 

Dr.  Shippen  remained  as  Professor  of  Anatomy  and 
Midwifery  until  his  death  in  1808,  when  Dr.  Wistar  was 
elected  to  the  chair.  Anatomy  and  Obstetrics  continued 
to  be  taught  by  one  professor  until  1810,  in  spite  of  Dr. 
Wistar's  efforts  to  bring  about  a  separation  of  the  two 
subjects.  On  April  11,  1810,  the  Board  of  Trustees 
passed  the  following  remarkable  resolution : 

"  That  the  present  establishment  of  a  Professor  of  Anatomy  and 
Midwifery  be  divided,  and  that  hereafter  there  shall  be  a  Professor- 
ship of  Anatomy,  and  a  Professorship  of  Midwifery,  but  that  it  shall 
not  be  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine, 
that  the  student  shall  attend  the  Professor  of  Midwifery." 

In  June,  1810,  Dr.  Thomas  Chalkley  James  was  elected 
Professor  of  Midwifery.  In  181 3  attendance  upon  the 
lectures  on  obstetrics  was  finally  made  compulsory  by  the 
following  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  October 
II,  1813: 

"Resolved,  That  hereafter  the  Professor  of  Midwifery  shall  be 
a  member  of  the  Medical  Faculty,  and  that  no  person  shall  be  ad- 
mitted as  a  Candidate  for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  in  this 
University,  unless  he  shall  have  regularly  attended  the  lectures  of 
said  Professor  for  two  years." 

Dr.  Woodhouse  continued  as  Professor  of  Chemistry 
until  his  death  in  1809,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Dr. 
John  Redman  Coxe. 

The  Medical  School  of  King's  College,  New  York.^ 
The  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  the  Uni- 
versity of   New   York  is  the   direct  descendant  of   the 

'  My  information  is  chiefly  derived  from  Hosack's  "  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Origin,  Progress  and  Present  State  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  the  University  of  New  York,"  Ameri- 
can Medical  and  Philosophical  Register,  vol.  iv.,  1814. 


2i8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Medical  School  of  King's  College  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  This  School  was  organized  in  the  year  1768  as  an 
adjunct  to  the  College.  Its  first  faculty  consisted  of  Dr. 
Samuel  Clossy,  Professor  of  Anatomy;  Dr.  John  Jones, 
Professor  of  Surgery;  Dr.  Peter  Middleton,  Professor 
of  Physiology  and  Pathology;  Dr.  James  Smith,  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry  and  Materia  Medica;  Dr.  John  V. 
B.  Tennent,  Professor  of  Midwifery;  and  Dr.  Samuel 
Bard,  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic. 
This  group  of  men  was  representative  of  the  best  ele- 
ment of  the  profession  in  New  York.  Dr.  Samuel  Clossy 
was  a  native  of  Ireland,  who  before  emigrating  to  this 
country  had  published  a  book  entitled  "  Observations  on 
some  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Human  Body,  chiefly  taken 
from  the  Dissections  of  Morbid  Bodies."  His  political 
opinions  rendered  him  obnoxious  to  the  patriots,  and  he 
returned  to  his  native  land  after  a  few  years'  sojourn  in 
this  country.  Dr.  John  Jones  was  the  grandson  of  Ed- 
ward Jones,  a  prominent  Welsh  physician  who  had  come 
over  with  Penn  to  Pennsylvania.  His  father,  Evan  Jones, 
had  attained  prominence  in  Pennsylvania  as  a  physician, 
but  had  removed  to  New  York  before  the  birth  of  his 
son  John.  Dr.  John  Jones  studied  under  Dr.  Thomas 
Cadwalader,  of  Pennsylvania,  subsequently  completing 
his  medical  studies  in  Europe.  He  was  a  famous  sur- 
geon in  his  day,  and  in  1775  published  one  of  the  earliest 
American  treatises  on  surgery,  entitled  "  Plain  Remarks 
upon  Wounds  and  Fractures."  In  1780  he  removed  to 
Philadelphia,  where,  in  the  same  year,  he  was  elected 
surgeon  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.  Dr.  Peter  Mid- 
dleton was  a  Scotchman.  In  1750  he  and  Dr.  Bard 
dissected  the  body  and  injected  the  blood-vessels,  proba- 
bly the  first  time  such  a  thing  was  done  in  America.  He 
wrote  a  letter  "  On  Croup"  to  Dr.  Richard  Bayley,  which 


Uk.  Samiki,  Bakd. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  219 

was  published  in  the  ninth  vohime  of  the  Medical  Reposi- 
tory. In  1769  he  pubHshed  his  discourse  on  the  history 
of  medicine,  deHvered  at  the  opening  of  the  New  York 
Medical  School.  Dr.  Samuel  Bard  was  the  son  of  the 
eminent  Dr.  John  Bard,  and  had  received  his  degree  of 
M.D.  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Even  when  a 
student  at  the  latter  he  had  written  to  his  father  about 
the  feasibility  of  establishing  a  medical  school  in  his 
native  country.  Dr.  James  Smith  had  graduated  in 
medicine  at  Leyden.  Thacher  says,  "  He  is  admitted  by 
all  to  have  been  eminently  learned,  though  too  theoretical 
and  fanciful,  both  as  a  practitioner  of  the  healing  art, 
and  in  his  course  of  public  instruction."  Lastly,  Dr.  John 
V.  B.  Tennent  was  a  man  of  great  attainments.  He  had 
studied  medicine  in  Europe  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  while  he  was  in  London.  He  died 
at  an  early  age  of  yellow  fever  in  the  West  Indies. 

In  1769  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Medicine  was  con- 
ferred upon  Robert  Tucker  and  Samuel  Kissam,  and  in 
1770  Samuel  Kissam  received  his  degree  of  M.D.,  his 
"  Inaugural  Dissertation  on  the  Anthelmintic  Uses  of  the 
Phaseolus  Zuratensis  Siliqua  hirsuta,  or  Cow-Itch,"  being 
preserved  in  the  library  of  the  New  York  Historical  So- 
ciety. The  Revolution,  however,  interrupted  the  opera- 
tions of  the  College,  and  the  original  faculty  never  again 
gave  instruction  as  its  professors.  In  1784  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  was  made  to  reorganize  the  medical  school. 
After  the  termination  of  the  war  King's  College  was 
renamed  Columbia,  and  in  1792  the  Board  of  Trustees  of 
the  institution  determined  to  revive  the  medical  school. 
Dr.  Samuel  Bard  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  faculty, 
but  the  laudable  efforts  of  the  trustees  were  frustrated 
and  the  scheme  proved  a  failure.  Between  1792  and  181 1 
but   thirty-four   students   received   degrees   in   medicine 


220  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

from  the  school.  In  1807  the  Regents  of  the  University 
of  New  York  determined  to  estabHsh  a  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons.  An  act  of  Legislature  authorizing 
them  to  create  such  a  college  had  been  passed  in  1791, 
but  the  time  had  heretofore  not  seemed  ripe  for  putting 
it  into  effect,  as  it  was  hoped  the  medical  school  of 
Columbia  College  would  have  fulfilled  the  purpose.  On 
the  1 2th  of  March,  1807,  however,  they  issued  a  charter 
for  the  new  institution.  On  the  5th  of  May,  1807,  the 
following  officers  were  elected  : 

Dr.  Nicholas  Romayne,  President. 

Dr.  Samuel  L.  Mitchell,  Vice-President. 

Dr.  Archibald  Bruce,  Registrar. 

Dr.  Abraham  Brower,  Treasurer. 

Censors. 

Edward  Miller,  M.D.,  David  Hosack,  M.D.,  Alexan- 
der Shelden,  William  Livingston,  William  James  Mc- 
Neven,  M.D.,  Henry  Van  Sohnigen,  M.D.,  William 
Wheeler,  J.  D.  Gillespie,  J.  E.  R.  Birch,  James  G.  Gra- 
ham, Benjamin  De  Witt,  M.D.,  Felix  Pascalis,  and  Alex- 
ander Hosack,  M.D. 

The  following  physicians  were  made  professors: 

Dr.  Edward  Miller,  Professor  of  the  Practice  of 
Physic;  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Mitchell,  Professor  of  Chemis- 
try ;  Dr.  David  Hosack,  Professor  of  Botany  and  Materia 
Medica;  Dr.  Benjamin  De  Witt,  Professor  of  the  In- 
stitutes of  Medicine.  A  number  of  lecturers  were  ap- 
pointed,— namely.  Dr.  Nicholas  Romayne  and  Dr.  John 
Augustine  Smith,  Lecturers  on  Anatomy;  Dr.  Benjamin 
De  Witt,  Lecturer  on  Chemistry;  Dr.  David  Hosack, 
Lecturer  on  Surgery  and  Midwifery;  and  Dr.  Edward 
Miller,  Lecturer  on  Clinical  Medicine. 

The  minute  details  of  business  relating  to  the  College 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  221 

were  confided  in  a  Senatus  Academicus,  consisting  of  the 
President,  Vice-President,  Professors,  Lecturers,  Regis- 
trar, and  Treasurer. 

A  building  for  the  College  was  procured  in  Robinson 
Street,  and  immediate  steps  were  taken  for  the  forma- 
tion of  an  anatomical  museum,  a  chemical  laboratory, 
and  a  mineralogical  collection.  In  1801  Dr.  David 
Hosack  had  purchased  a  tract  of  land,  of  about  twenty 
acres  in  extent,  on  the  road  between  Bloomingdale  and 
Kingsbridge,  which  he  had  laid  out  as  a  botanic  garden, 
and  this  was  committed  to  the  care  of  the  trustees  of  the 
College  for  the  benefit  of  the  students  in  their  botanical 
studies.  In  a  "  Sketch  of  the  Elgin  Botanical  Garden  in 
the  Vicinity  of  New  York,"  published  in  the  American 
Medical  and  Philosophical  Register  for  July,  181 1,  there 
is  a  description  of  this  garden.     It  states, — 

"  As  a  primary  object  of  attention  in  this  establishment  was  to 
collect  and  cultivate  the  native  plants  of  this  country,  especially  such 
as  possess  medicinal  properties,  or  are  otherwise  useful ;  among 
others,  such  gardeners  as  were  practically  acquainted  with  our  in- 
digenous productions  were  employed  to  procure  them,  and  by  the 
distinguished  liberality  of  several  scientific  gentlemen  in  this  country, 
there  were  in  cultivation  at  the  commencement  of  1805  nearly  fifteen 
hundred  species  of  American  plants,  besides  a  considerable  number 
of  rare  and  valuable  exotics." 

In  the  year  1806  very  important  additions  were  made 
to  the  collection  of  plants  from  various  parts  of  Europe 
as  well  as  from  the  East  and  West  Indies.  A  second 
building  for  their  preservation  was  also  erected,  and  the 
foundation  of  a  third  laid,  which  was  completed  in  the 
following  year.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  1806, 
a  catalogue  of  the  plants,  both  native  and  exotic,  which 
had  been  already  collected,  and  which  amounted  to  nearly 
two  thousand,  was  published. 


222  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

On  the  7th  of  November,  1807,  the  lecture  courses 
commenced  and  were  regularly  continued.  An  arrange- 
ment was  entered  into  with  the  Board  of  Examiners  of 
the  New  York  Hospital  which  placed  the  clinical  material 
of  the  latter  institution  at  the  disposal  of  the  Professor 
of  the  Practice  of  Physic  for  a  course  of  clinical  lectures, 
and  Dr.  McNeven,  who  was  one  of  the  physicians  to  the 
New  York  Almshouse,  was  able  to  give  his  students  the 
benefit  of  the  clinical  matter  to  be  found  in  it.  In  1808 
the  Legislature  gave  a  liberal  appropriation  of  twenty 
thousand  dollars  to  the  College.  During  1807  there 
were  fifty-three  students  in  attendance,  which  number  in- 
creased in  1808  to  seventy-two. 

The  trustees  availed  themselves  of  the  Legislature's 
gift  to  enable  them  to  move  into  more  commodious  build- 
ings on  Pearl  Street.  In  the  interval  between  the  session 
of  1807  and  that  of  1808,  Dr.  Smith  was  promoted  from 
Lecturer  to  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery,  Dr. 
Mitchell  was  made  Professor  of  Natural  History,  Dr. 
De  Witt,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Dr.  McNeven,  Pro- 
fessor of  Obstetrics  and  the  Diseases  of  Women  and 
Children,  and  Dr.  Romayne,  Professor  of  the  Institutes 
of  Medicine.  The  session  of  1808  lasted  for  four  months, 
and  the  lectures  were  well  attended  by  the  students,  and 
the  different  courses  elicited  unanimous  approbation. 

In  1809  there  were  seventy-three  students,  and  many 
important  improvements  were  made  in  the  equipment  and 
curriculum  of  the  College.  The  various  anatomical  and 
natural  history  museums  received  many  additions.  Dr. 
A.  Bruce  was  elected  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  and 
Mineralogy.  The  good  work  of  the  institution  now,  how- 
ever, received  a  serious  check.  Misunderstandings  arose 
between  Dr.  Romayne  and  some  of  the  professors,  as  the 
result  of  which  several  of  the  professors  refused  to  lee- 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  223 

ture,  and  the  courses  became  so  imperfect  and  curtailed 
that  the  students  fell  off  to  only  about  one-third  of  their 
former  number.  The  Regents  of  the  University  of  New 
York  took  the  matter  up,  and  appointed  a  committee, 
consisting  of  Chief  Justice  Kent,  Judge  Spencer,  and 
Judge  Smith,  to  investigate  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
They  reported  as  follows : 

"  At  a  meeting  of  the  Regents  of  the  University,  held  pursuant  to 
adjournment,  in  the  Senate  Chamber,  on  the  first  of  April  181 1. 

"  The  committee  relative  to  the  state  of  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  the  city  of  New  York,  report,  that  unfortunate 
misunderstandings  have  taken  place  betw^een  several  professors  of 
the  College,  which  have  already  materially  impeded  its  operations, 
and  unless  something  effectual  be  done  by  the  regents,  it  will 
become  degraded  in  the  estimation  of  the  public,  and  its  usefulness 
will  be  inevitably  destroyed.  The  committee  have  forborne  to  trace 
and  bring  to  light  the  conduct  of  individuals,  because  in  their  opinion 
it  would  be  both  useless  and  invidious. 

"  Propositions  have  been  made  to  the  committee  to  re-model  the 
institution,  with  a  view  of  rendering  its  operation  more  simple  and 
introducing  into  it  several  of  the  Professors  of  the  Medical  School 
in  Columbia  College,  and  other  eminent  and  distinguished  indi- 
viduals; this  proposition  has  been  viewed  by  the  committee  in  the 
most  favorable  light,  as  it  may  extinguish  the  feuds  existing  among 
the  present  Professors  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
and  as  it  will,  in  all  probability,  be  the  means  of  uniting  the  two 
schools.  The  latter  appears  an  object  of  the  first  importance,  in  as 
much  as  it  will  assemble,  in  one  institution,  a  splendid  collection  of 
medical  and  surgical  talents,  and  as  it  cannot  fail  to  merit  and  receive 
the  patronage  and  encouragement  of  the  legislature. 

"  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  committee  to  attempt  to  display  the 
important  advantages  to  the  state  which  a  well  organized  Medical 
School  in  the  city  of  New  York  must  afford,  its  hospital  and  the 
subjects  furnished  by  the  state  prison,  without  the  violation  of  law, 
present  a  field  for  the  acquisition  of  medical  and  surgical  knowledge 
unrivalled  in  the  United  States,  and  it  is  only  requisite  to  establish 
an  institution,  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  legislature,  in  which 
shall  be  united  the  best  talents,  and  to  secure  these  advantages  to 
the  state. 

"  Under  these  impressions,  the  committee  beg  leave  to  report  an 
alteration  of  the  charter  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons. 


224  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

and  to  propose  a  new  list  of  officers  and  professors,  which  altera- 
tion is  as  follows,  to  wit: 

"  By  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

"  Whereas  we  have  reserved  to  ourselves  the  right  to  alter  and 
modify  our  ordinances  for  establishing  a  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  in  New  York;    therefore, 

"  Be  it  ordained,  That  all  the  corporate  rights,  privileges,  powers, 
and  immunities  granted  by  us  to  the  said  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  to  the  Trustees  or  Members  thereof,  shall  hereafter  be 
exclusively  vested  in,  and  exercised  by  the  Trustees  of  the  said 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  to  be  appointed  from  time  to 
time  by  us  or  our  successors.  And  the  said  Trustees  shall  do  and 
perform  all  matters  and  things  which  the  said  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons,  the  Trustees  or  Members  thereof,  and  the 
Senatus  Academicus  and  Censors  thereof,  are  authorized  and  re- 
quired to  do  and  perform. 

"  And  he  it  further  ordained.  That  the  President,  Vice-President, 
Professors,  and  Treasurer  of  the  said  College,  for  the  time  being, 
and  such  other  persons  as  we,  or  our  successors,  may  hereafter 
appoint,  shall  be  the  Trustees  of  the  said  College,  provided  the  whole 
number  of  the  said  Trustees  shall  not,  at  any  time,  be  more  than 
twenty-five. 

"And  be  it  further  ordained,  that  the  President  or  Vice-President, 
or  any  three  of  the  Trustees,  shall  have  power,  at  any  time,  to  call 
a  meeting  of  the  said  Trustees,  by  giving  at  least  three  days  previous 
notice  of  the  time  and  place  of  holding  said  meeting.  And  five  of 
the  said  Trustees  (of  which  the  President,  or  in  his  absence,  the 
Vice-President,  shall  be  one)  shall  be  a  quorum  for  the  transaction 
of  business. 

"  And  he  it  further  ordained.  That  the  Trustees  and  Members 
of  the  said  College,  who  are  not  constituted  Trustees  by  this  sup- 
plementary charter,  shall  be  hereafter  fellows  or  members  thereof, 
and  that  the  Trustees  shall  have  power  to  elect  fellows  as  members 
of  the  said  College,  who  shall  at  all  times  have  the  privilege  of 
attending  all  the  public  lectures  and  other  courses  of  instruction, 
delivered  by  the  Professors  in  the  said  College;  and  who  shall 
also  have  the  privilege  of  visiting  and  inspecting  the  Anatomical 
Museum,  the  Botanical  Garden,  the  Cabinets  of  Mineralogy  and 
Natural  History,  and  the  Library  of  the  said  College,  under  such 
regulations  as  the  Trustees  shall  prescribe  for  that  purpose. 

"And  he  it  further  ordained,  That  reserving  to  ourselves  and 
our  successors,  Regents  of  the  University,  the  power  of  making  such 
other  grants  and  ordinances  as  may  be  necessary  or  useful  for  the 
said  College,  we  finally  order,  that  this  ordinance  shall  form  part  of 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  225 

the  charter  of  the  said  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  the 
city  of  New  York.  And  we  do  hereby  revoke  and  annul  such  parts 
of  our  previous  grants  and  ordinances  as  are  contrary  to,  or  incon- 
sistent with,  the  present  ordinance." 

After  this  reorganization,  on  April  i,  181 1,  the  fol- 
lowing faculty  was  elected : 

Dr.  Samuel  Bard,  President. 

Dr.  Benjamin  De  Witt,  Vice-President. 

Dr.  John  Augustine  Smith,  Professor  of  Anatomy, 
Surgery,  and  Physiology. 

Dr.  David  Hosack,  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Physic  and  Clinical  Medicine. 

Dr.  William  James  McNeven,  Professor  of  Chemistry. 

Dr.  Samuel  L.  ^Mitchell,  Professor  of  Natural  History. 

John  D.  Jaques,  Treasurer. 

Dr.  John  W.  Francis,  Registrar. 

The  Legislature  made  the  trustees  an  annual  grant  of 
five  hundred  dollars.  The  first  Commencement  under 
the  new  regime  was  held  on  the  15th  of  May,  181 1,  when 
the  degree  of  M.D.  was  bestowed  on  eight  graduates. 
Soon  after  this  the  wished-for  union  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  with  Columbia  College  was 
consummated,  and  formally  announced  in  the  following 
circular : 

"  The  union  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  with  the 
Faculty  of  Physic  of  Columbia  College,  so  long  des.ired  by  the 
friends  of  science,  has  at  length  most  happily  taken  place.  In  April, 
181 1,  the  honorable  the  Regents  of  the  university  expressly  endeav- 
oured to  effect  this  important  object;  fully  impressed,  as  they  pro- 
fessed themselves  to  be,  '  with  the  advantages  to  the  state,  which 
a  well  organized  medical  school  in  New  York  must  afford.'  For  this 
purpose  the  Regents  new-modelled  the  school  of  medicine  at  that 
time,  with  a  view  of  introducing  into  it  the  professors  of  the  medical 
school  of  Columbia  College,  and  other  eminent  and  distinguished 
individuals ;  that  thus  united  in  one  institution,  the  medical  talents 
of  both   seminaries   might  be  a  greater  benefit  to  the  public,  and 

15 


226  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

still    better   entitled   to    the   patronage    and    encouragement   of    the 
legislature. 

"  The  following  arrangement,  therefore,  has  been  concluded,  and 
will  be  carried  into  operation  at  the  ensuing  session  of  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  which  will  commence  on  the  first  Mon- 
day of  November  next,  at  their  new  and  spacious  buildings,  recently 
completed  in  Barclay  street. 

"  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Surgery,  by  Dr.  Wright  Post,  and  Dr. 
John  Augustine  Smith. 

Clinical  Surgery  at  the  New  York  Hospital,  by  Dr.  Post. 

Clinical  Practice  of  Medicine,  at  do.  by  Dr.  William  Hamersley. 

Obstetrics  and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children,  with  practical  illus- 
trations at  the  Lying-in  Hospital,  by  Dr.  John  C.  Osborn. 

Chemistry  and  Pharmacy,  by  Dr.  Willliam  J.  McNeven. 

Medical  Jurisprudence,  by  Dr.  James  S.  Stringham. 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery,  by  Dr.  Valentine  Mott. 

Materia  Medica,  by  Dr.  John  W.  Francis. 

Natural  History,  including  Botany  and  Mineralogy,  by  Dr.  Samuel 
L.  Mitchell. 

Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy,  by  the  Vice-President  of  the 
College,  Dr.  Benjamin  De  Witt. 

"  The  Lectures  on  Anatomy,  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Sur- 
gery, the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic,  and  on  Chemistry,  will 
be  delivered  daily,  and  the  other  courses  of  instruction  three  times 
in  each  week  throughout  the  session,  which  will  continue  from  the 
first  Monday  of  November  to  the  first  Monday  in  March. 

"  Although  the  most  liberal  and  extensive  system  of  medical  and 
philosophical  instruction  has  thus  been  provided  at  this  institution, 
the  expense  of  education  to  the  candidate  for  medical  honors  is  not 
increased  beyond  that  of  any  other  college  in  the  union ;  as  none 
of  the  courses  are  made  indispensably  necessary  for  graduation,  and 
the  student  is  at  liberty  to  attend  any  course  or  courses  he  may  think 
proper ;  the  professors  insisting  upon  the  attainments  of  the  candi- 
date, and  not  upon  the  number  of  courses ;  nor  the  number  of  years 
he  may  have  attended  at  the  University. 

"  By  order 

"  Samuel  Bard,  M.D.,  President. 
John  W.  Francis,  M.D.,  Registrar." 

The  subsequent  successful  career  of  the  institution  thus 
founded  is  well  known,  and  has  amply  justified  the  wis- 
dom and  foresight  of  its  founders. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  227 

The  Medical   School  of  Harvard   University. 

Harvard  College,  the  oldest  of  American  institutions 
of  learning,  was  founded  in  1638  as  a  college  for  the 
education  of  youth  in  arts,  letters,  and  puritanical 
theology,  but  no  effort  was  made  towards  the  founding 
of  a  medical  school  until  many  years  later.  There  seems 
to  have  been,  however,  from  an  early  date  some  vague 
idea  that  such  establishment  would  be  of  advantage  to 
the  institution. 

On  the  night  of  January  24,  1764,  the  library  building 
of  Harvard  College  was  destroyed  by  fire.  At  the  time 
smallpox  was  epidemic  in  Boston,  and  consequently  the 
General  Court  was  holding  its  sittings  in  the  building, 
which  had  been  lent  to  it  by  the  College  authorities. 

Green  ^  quotes  from  a  contemporary  account  of  the 
fire,  published  in  The  Boston  Post-Boy  &  Advertiser 
for  January  30,  1764,  the  following  item  among  the 
losses : 

"  A  collection  of  the  most  approved  medical  Authors,  chiefly 
presented  by  Mr.  James,  of  the  island  of  Jamaica;  to  which  Dr. 
Mead  and  other  Gentlemen  had  made  very  considerable  additions : 
Also  anatomical  cutts  and  two  complete  skeletons  of  different  sexes. 
This  Collection  would  have  been  very  serviceable  to  a  Professor  of 
Physic  and  Anatomy,  when  the  revenues  of  the  College  should  have 
been  sufficient  to  subsist  a  gentleman  in  this  character." 

Dr.  Ezekiel  Hersey  was  a  distinguished  practitioner  of 
Hingham,  Massachusetts.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
in  1728,  and  then  studied  medicine  under  the  notorious 
Dr.  Lawrence  Dalhonde,  of  Boston.  Notwithstanding 
the  latter's  violent  opposition  to  inoculation,  his  pupil 
had  the  courage  to  enter  the  first  class  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  having  that  operation  performed  on  them  in 

*  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts. 


228  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

Boston.  At  his  death  in  1770  he  bequeathed  one  thou- 
sand pounds  to  Harvard,  to  be  used  for  the  found- 
ing of  a  Professorship  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery,  which 
was  supplemented  by  a  like  sum  at  the  death  of  his 
widow. 

Dr.  Ezekiel  Hersey's  brother.  Dr.  Abner  Hersey,  a 
very  eccentric  doctor  but  having  a  large  practice  in  Barn- 
stable, Massachusetts,  at  his  death  in  1787  left  five  hun- 
dred pounds  to  be  added  to  the  fund  left  by  his  brother 
and  his  sister-in-law. 

Dr.  John  Gumming,  who  during  his  life  enjoyed  a 
large  practice  in  Concord,  Massachusetts,  some  years 
before  his  death  received  the  honorary  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts  from  Harvard,  and  at  his  death  in  1788,  no  doubt 
in  gratitude  for  this  favor,  he  left  the  University  five 
hundred  pounds  towards  the  endowment  of  a  medical 
professorship.  William  Ewings,  Esq.,  a  well-known 
citizen  of  Boston,  left,  according  to  Thacher,^  one  thou- 
sand pounds  for  the  endowment  of  an  additional  pro- 
fessorship. 

All  these  funds  were  consequently  available  at  the  time 
when  it  was  found  feasible  to  open  a  medical  department 
of  the  University. 

The  Hon.  Josiah  Bartlett  ^^  mentions  the  fact  that  in 
1 77 1  a  number  of  undergraduate  students  at  Harvard 
who  were  interested  in  anatomy  formed  a  society  called 
"  The  Anatomical  Society,"  which  held  private  meetings 
for  the  discussion  of  medical  questions,  and  possessed 
the  proud  distinction  of  owning  a  skeleton. 

In  1780  a  Continental  army  hospital  was  established 

"  American  Medical  Biography. 

"  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Progress  of  Medical  Science  in  the 
Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  (1810),  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society's  Collections,  second  series,  vol.  i.  p.  105. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  229 

in  Boston,  to  which  Dr.  John  Warren  was  surgeon,  and 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  rendering  the  cHnical  material 
useful,  and  also  of  combining  with  this  the  teaching  of 
anatomy.  He  gave  a  series  of  lectures  on  anatomy,  and 
repeated  them  in  the  following  year,  in  which  they  were 
attended  by  such  Harvard  students  as  were  contemplating 
the  study  of  medicine.  These  lectures  attracted  so  much 
attention  and  so  favorably  impressed  those  that  heard 
them  that  the  Harvard  authorities  invited  him  to  lecture 
at  Cambridge,  and  to  aid  them  in  the  establishment  of  a 
medical  school. 

Dr.  John  Warren  was  a  younger  brother  of  the  so 
greatly  lamented  Dr.  Joseph  Warren,  who  had  died  for 
his  country  at  Bunker  Hill.  He  had  served  as  an  army 
surgeon  throughout  the  war,  and  after  its  close  had 
attained  much  eminence  in  Boston.  He  was  very  active 
in  affairs  of  state  as  well  as  in  medicine,  and  no  man 
could  have  been  found  better  suited  to  perform  the  work 
that  Harvard  called  on  him  to  do.  He  was  possessed 
of  such  indomitable  will-power  and  energy  that  it  is 
related  of  him  that  when  he  was  not  expected  to  recover 
from  a  fever  with  which  he  was  sick  in  1783,  Dr.  Joseph 
Gardiner  said,  "  that  young  man  is  so  determined  to  re- 
cover, that  he  will  succeed  in  spite  of  his  disease."  It 
was  no  easy  task  for  a  busy  doctor  to  get  through  his 
long  rounds  in  those  days  of  imperfect  locomotion. 
Thacher  ^^  tells  us  how,  "  in  the  fullness  of  professional 
business  he  [Warren]  daily  passed  over  Charlestown 
ferry  to  Cambridge,  there  not  being  a  bridge  at  that 
time;  and  sometimes,  when  impeded  by  ice,  was  com- 
pelled to  take  the  route  through  Roxbury  and  Brookline 
to  Cambridge,  and  to  return  on  the  same  morning,  after- 

"  American  Medical  Biography,  p.  261. 


230 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


wards  himself  performing  the  dissections  and  giving  a 
lecture  sometimes  three  hours  long." 

The  plan  which  Dr.  Warren  drew  up  was  approved  by 
those  in  charge  of  the  matter,  and  in  1783  the  Harvard 
Medical  School  began  its  long  and  honorable  career.  Dr. 
Warren  was  appointed  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Sur- 
gery. Dr.  Aaron  Dexter  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Chemistry  and  Materia  Medica,  and  Dr.  Benjamin 
Waterhouse,  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Medicine. 

Of  Dr.  Dexter  not  much  has  descended  to  us.  He 
seems  to  have  been  one  of  those  men  who  do  good, 
honest,  hard  work,  and  dying  leave  no  very  permanent 
memorials  of  their  careers.  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes  ^^  has  repeated  for  our  benefit  an  anecdote  which 
he  had  heard  from  one  of  the  professor's  ex-students : 

"  '  This  experiment,  gentlemen,'  he  is  represented  as  saying,  '  is 
one  o£  remarkable  brilliancy.  As  I  touch  the  powder  you  see  before 
me  with  a  drop  of  this  fluid,  it  bursts  into  a  sudden  and  brilliant 
flame,'  which  it  most  emphatically  does  not  do  as  he  makes  the 
contact.  '  Gentlemen,'  he  says,  with  a  serene  smile,  '  the  experiment 
has  failed ;  but  the  principle,  gentlemen,  —  the  principle,  remains 
firm  as  the  everlasting  hills.'  " 

Dr.  Benjamin  Waterhouse  was  a  very  distinguished 
man  in  Boston  medical  circles.  He  was  the  first  physi- 
cian to  practise  vaccination  in  this  country.  In  July, 
1800,  he  procured  vaccine  virus  from  London  and  vac- 
cinated his  own  children.  He  was  the  only  one  of  the 
three  professors  who  had  received  his  medical  education 
in  Europe.  Possibly  on  this  account  he  possessed  a 
somewhat  pedantic  manner.  Dr.  Holmes  gives  us  the 
following  amusing  account  of  him : 

"  Address  at  the  One  Hundredth  Anniversary  of  the  Foundation 
of  the  Medical  School  of  Harvard  University. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  231 

"  I  remember  him  well,  and  carry  the  scar  of  the  vaccination  he 
performed  on  me.  His  powdered  hair  and  queue,  his  gold-headed 
cane,  his  magisterial  air  and  diction,  were  familiar  to  me  from  my 
boyhood.  Dr.  Waterhouse  had  his  degree  from  Leyden,  where  he 
wrote  and  defended  a  thesis,  De  Sympathia  Portium  Corporis 
Hiimani,  ejusque  in  explicandis  et  curandis  morbis  necessaria  con- 
sideratione.  He  had  some  learning,  which  he  was  disposed  to  make 
the  most  of,  as  perhaps  we  all  are  if  we  have  it,  and  laid  himself 
open  to  the  playful  sallies  of  the  students  of  his  time,  one  of  whom 
announced  a  course  of  Lectures  on  Ondenology,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  be  a  travesty  of  some  of  his  prelections." 

The  lectures  of  the  professors  were  attended  by  some 
twenty  students  at  first,  "  and  also  by  those  members  of 
the  Senior  Class  of  the  University  who  obtained  the 
consent  of  their  parents."  The  lectures  were  generally 
two  or  three  hours  long.  They  were  given  at  Cam- 
bridge, in  the  College  buildings,  until  December,  1810, 
when  the  Medical  School  was  transferred  to  Boston. 
One  subject  was  generally  all  the  anatomical  material 
which  could  be  procured  in  a  year.  Dr.  Holmes  says, 
in  speaking  of  the  text-books  in  use  at  that  time, — 

"  Dr.  Waterhouse  would  naturally  refer  his  students  to  the  learned 
Gaubrus,  the  voluminous  Van  Swieten,  the  illustrious  Boerhaave. 
The  excellent  Dr.  Fothergill  was  his  uncle ;  the  immortal  Jenner  was 
his  second  creator ;  and  their  names,  with  that  of  Dr.  Lettsom,  were 
often  on  his  lips.  Sydenham,  Pringle,  and  Cullen  he  speaks  of  as 
being  in  the  hands  of  all  his  students,  and  his  references  show  a  con- 
siderable extent  of  reading.  The  text-books  in  Anatomy  were  prob- 
ably Cheselden  and  Monro,  perhaps  Winslow,  and  for  those  who  could 
read  French,  Sabatier.  The  Professor  himself  had  the  magnificent 
illustrated  works  of  Albinius  and  of  Haller,  the  plates  of  Cowper 
(stolen  from  Bidloo)  and  others.  The  student  may  have  seen  from 
time  to  time,  if  he  did  not  own,  the  figures  of  Eustachius  and  of 
Haller.  Haller's  '  First  Lines  of  Physiology'  were  doubtless  in  the 
hands  of  most  students.  The  works  of  Pott,  of  Sharp,  and,  most  of 
all,  of  John  Hunter,  were  taking  the  place  of  Heister  and  the  other 
earlier  authorities. 

"  Smellie  was  probably  enough  the  favorite  in  his  department. 
What  chemical  text-books  Dr.  Dexter  put  into  the  hands  of  his 
students  in  1783  I  will  not  venture  to  conjecture." 


232  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

The  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  was  conferred  in 
1788  on  John  Fleet.  According  to  Thacher,  John 
Holmes  Hall  also  received  his  degree  of  M.D.  in  this 
year.  In  1789  there  were  two  graduates,  Peter  de  Sales 
Laterriere  and  William  Pearson.  In  1790  but  one  de- 
gree was  conferred,  but  its  recipient  was  destined  to 
reflect  great  glory  on  his  alma  mater,  for  he  was  no  less 
than  the  eminent  Nathan  Smith. 

Medical  Department  of  Dartmouth  College. 

In  1798  the  authorities  of  Dartmouth  College  deter- 
mined to  establish  a  medical  school  in  connection  with  it. 
Dr.  Nathan  Smith  was  responsible  most  largely  for  its 
founding  and  was  for  many  years  its  only  professor, 
and  "  For  twelve  years  gave  lectures  on  the  different 
branches  of  medicine,  except  two  courses,  in  which  he 
was  assisted  in  the  department  of  chemistry." 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  233 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    MEDICAL    PROFESSION    IN    THE    WAR    FOR    INDEPEN- 
DENCE.^ 

In  the  colonial  period  of  our  history  in  every  com- 
munity there  were  three  men  who  stood  forth  pre-emi- 
nently as  representing  the  learning  and  intellect  of  its 
inhabitants.  They  were  the  clergyman,  the  lawyer,  and 
the  physician.  It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  in  the 
War  for  Independence  the  representative  men  of  the 
three  professions  are  found  to  have  been,  with  but  few 
prominent  exceptions,  on  the  side  of  the  colonies. 

In  gathering  the  facts  together  concerning  the  physi- 
cians of  that  stormy  period  and  the  medical  history  of 
the  war,  I  have  endeavored  to  present,  as  briefly  as  pos- 
sible, some  slight  sketches  of  the  lives  of  those  who  ren- 
dered themselves  conspicuous  in  the  struggle,  together 
with  the  history  of  the  organization  and  management 
of  the  hospital  service  of  the  Revolutionary  army.  The 
task  has  been  a  difficult  one,  as  the  materials  for  it  are 
scanty,  but  I  feel  confident  that  it  is  a  field  of  history  as 
inviting  as  it  is  difficult,  and  fully  worth  all  the  effort 
that  can  be  given  to  it.  Not  only  did  the  physicians  of 
that  time  furnish  medical  aid  to  the  patriot  cause,  but 
many  of  them  became  distinguished  by  their  civil  or  mili- 
tary services. 

'  The  substance  of  this  chapter  was  published  in  the  Charlotte 
Medical  Journal  in  1899,  and  I  am  indebted  to  its  editors  for  per- 
mission to  republish  it. 


234  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

Before  proceeding  to  the  discussion  of  more  strictly 
medical  matters  let  us  pause  and  review  the  services  ren- 
dered by  physicians  to  their  country  in  matters  apart  from 
their  strictly  professional  duties. 

Among  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
w^e  find  the  following  physicians :  Joshua  Bartlett  and 
Matthew  Thornton,  of  New  Hampshire ;  Oliver  Wolcott, 
of  Connecticut;  Benjamin  Rush,  of  Pennsylvania;  and 
Lyman  Hall,  of  Georgia. 

The  first  overt  acts  of  war  occurred  in  Massachusetts, 
and  the  role  played  by  members  of  the  profession  in  that 
colony  in  the  events  leading  up  to  the  battles  of  Concord 
and  Lexington,  during  those  engagements,  and  subse- 
quent to  them,  is  memorable. 

The  following  physicians  were  among  the  members 
of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  in  1774 
and  1775, — namely,  Joseph  Batchelder,  of  Grafton, 
Worcester  County;  William  Bayliss,  of  Dighton,  Bris- 
tol County;  Chauncey  Brewer,  of  West  Springfield, 
Hampshire  County;  Alexander  Campbell,  of  Oxford, 
Worcester  County;  Benjamin  Church,  of  Boston;  Da- 
vid Cobb,  of  Taunton,  Bristol  County;  William  Duns- 
more,  of  Lancaster,  Worcester  County;  John  Corbet,  of 
Bellingham,  Sufifolk  County;  Isaac  Foster,  of  Charles- 
town,  Middlesex  County ;  Ephraim  Guiteau,  of  New  Marl- 
borough, Berkshire  County;  Jeremiah  Hall,  of  Pem- 
broke, Plymouth  County ;  James  Hawse,  of  Westborough, 
Worcester  County;  Samuel  Holten,  of  Danvers,  Essex 
County;  William  Jamieson,  of  Meriden,  Worcester 
County;  David  Jones,  of  Abington,  Plymouth  County; 
Moses  Morse,  of  Worthington,  Hampshire  County; 
Richard  Perkins,  of  Bridgewater,  Plymouth  County; 
Charles  Pynchon,  of  Springfield,  Hampshire  County; 
Ebenezer  Sawyer,  of  Wells,  York  County;  John  Taylor, 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  235 

of  Summerburg,  Worcester  County;  Joseph  Warren, 
of  Boston;  William  Whitney,  of  the  towns  of  Egmont 
and  Alfred  in  Berkshire  County. 

Dr.  Joseph  Warren  was  the  most  prominent  and  best 
beloved  of  the  early  martyrs  in  the  conflict.  He  was  born 
at  Roxbury  in  1741,  graduated  from  Harvard  College 
in  1759,  and  at  once  began  his  medical  studies  under  Dr. 
James  Lloyd.  He  attained  a  very  extensive  practice, 
not  only  because  of  his  professional  skill,  but  also  by 
means  of  a  large  degree  of  what  we  would  now  call 
personal  magnetism.  He  was  an  orator  of  no  mean 
ability,  and  was  twice  chosen  orator  of  the  day  on  the 
5th  of  March,  on  which  date  the  anniversary  of  the 
Boston  Massacre  was  celebrated.  It  was  to  his  vigilance 
that  the  patriots  were  indebted  for  their  knowledge  that 
on  April  19,  1775,  the  British  would  attempt  to  capture 
the  military  stores  which  had  been  accumulated  at  Con- 
cord. It  was  he  who  despatched  Paul  Revere  and  other 
messengers  to  arouse  the  minute-men,  and  when  the  fight 
occurred  at  Lexington,  he  shouldered  a  musket  and  was 
in  the  thick  of  it.  On  June  14,  1775,  the  Provincial 
Congress  of  Massachusetts  appointed  him  a  major-general 
of  that  colony's  troops,  at  a  time  when  he  already  held 
the  office  of  president  of  that  Congress.  He  felt  that  his 
duties  called  him  to  the  field,  and  on  the  15th  of  June 
hastened  to  join  the  Americans  in  their  fight  on  Bunker 
Hill.  He  declined  to  avail  himself  of  his  commission 
to  command  troops,  but  voluntarily  placed  himself  under 
the  command  of  Colonel  Prescott,  as  he  modestly  said, 
to  learn  the  art  of  war  from  a  more  experienced  soldier. 
He  was  killed  towards  the  end  of  the  day  as  he  was 
leaving  the  breastworks  after  the  retreat  of  almost  all 
of  the  Americans  from  them.  His  loss  was  long  mourned 
by  his  compatriots  as  irreparable. 


236  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Dr.  John  Brooks  was  born  in  Medford,  Massachusetts, 
in  1752.  After  a  common-school  education  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  Dr.  Simon  Tufts  for  seven  years.  As  a 
fellow-pupil  he  had  the  famous  Count  Rumford.  It  is 
related  of  Brooks  that  while  he  was  serving  his  appren- 
ticeship his  chief  amusement  was  to  form  the  boys  of 
the  village  into  military  companies  and  drill  them,  thus 
early  manifesting  an  interest  in  that  science  in  which  he 
later  became  such  an  expert.  At  the  expiration  of  his 
apprenticeship  he  established  himself  in  Reading,  Mas- 
sachusetts, but  the  stir  of  war  was  in  the  air.  The  town 
organized  a  militia  company  and  the  young  doctor  was 
given  its  command.  When  the  news  of  the  march  of 
the  British  on  Concord  reached  them  they  hastened  to 
the  scene  of  action,  and  arrived  in  time  to  take  a  hand 
in  the  fighting.  Brooks  received  a  commission  as  major 
in  the  Continental  army.  In  1777  he  had  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel,  and  as  such  partook  in  the  campaign 
which  resulted  in  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne.  He  was 
adjutant-general  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth.  After  the 
war  he  resumed  the  practice  of  medicine,  settling  in 
Medford.  But  he  continued  to  take  an  active  part  in 
public  affairs,  and  in  1816  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Massachusetts.  He  died  on  the  ist  of  March,  1825,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-three.  It  is  curious  to  note  how,  even 
when  most  active  in  political  affairs,  he  yet  maintained 
his  eminence  as  a  physician.  In  1808  he  delivered  before 
the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society  the  annual  address, 
the  subject  being  pneumonia. 

Dr.  William  Eustis  attained  great  eminence  in  civil 
life.  He  was  born  in  Boston  in  1753,  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1774,  and  began  the  study  of  medi- 
cine under  Dr.  Joseph  Warren.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  position  of  regimental  surgeon  first,  and  later  to  that 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  237 

of  hospital  surgeon,  in  the  Continental  army.  It  was 
Dr.  Eustis  who  attended  Mrs.  Arnold  in  the  hysterical 
attack  from  which  she  suffered  on  receipt  of  the  informa- 
tion that  her  husband  had  fled  to  the  British  lines.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  settled  in  practice  at  Boston,  but 
soon  drifted  into  political  life.  In  1787  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts,  in 
1800  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  In  1808  President 
Madison  appointed  him  Secretary  of  War.  In  181 5  he 
was  minister  to  Holland.  In  1821  he  was  once  more 
elected  to  Congress,  and  shortly  afterwards  he  succeeded 
another  physician.  Dr.  Brooks,  as  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts.    He  died  in  1825  in  his  seventy-second  year. 

Yet  another  Massachusetts  physician  who  became 
prominent  in  political  affairs  was  Nathaniel  Freeman. 
He  was  born  in  1741,  and  studied  medicine  under  Dr. 
Cobb.  He  settled  in  Sandwich,  Massachusetts,  and  while 
attending  to  the  cares  of  a  large  practice  found  time  to 
read  law.  In  1773  he  becam.e  chairman  of  the  Committee 
of  Correspondence  and  Safety  of  Sandwich.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of 
Massachusetts  in  1775,  and  appointed  colonel  of  a  militia 
regiment.  In  1776  he  was  made  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas,  and  thenceforth  until  1789  served  in 
many  public  capacities.  In  1789  he  determined  to  again 
resume  the  practice  of  medicine,  and  soon  acquired  an 
extensive  practice.  In  1804  he  retired  from  active  pro- 
fessional work,  but  occasionally  saw  patients  down  to  the 
year  of  his  death.     He  died  on  September  20,  1827. 

Dr.  Josiah  Bartlett  was  born  in  Amesbury,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1729,  but,  after  studying  medicine,  he  removed, 
in  1750,  to  Kingston,  New  Hampshire,  where  he  re- 
mained in  the  practice  of  his  profession  until  the  war 
for  Independence.     Before  the  latter  event  he  had  been 


238  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

colonel  of  a  militia  regiment,  and  in  1775  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Provincial  Congress  to  the  same  position 
in  one  of  their  regiments.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  of  1776,  and  in  that  capacity  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In 
1779  he  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  Superior  Court, 
and  in  1789  chief  justice.  In  1790  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire,  and  in  1793  became 
its  first  governor.     He  died  on  May  19,  1795. 

Another  New  Hampshire  physician  of  prominence  in 
civil  life  was  Dr.  Matthew  Thornton.  He  was  born  in 
Ireland  in  17 14,  came  to  Connecticut  with  his  father, 
receiving  in  that  State  his  school  and  medical  education. 
He  settled  in  practice  at  Londonderry,  New  Hampshire, 
where  he  attained  much  professional  repute  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  justice  of  the  peace  and  colonel  of  militia.  In 
1775  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Provincial  Congress 
of  New  Hampshire.  He  was  elected  to  the  Continental 
Congress  and  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  chief  justice 
of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  later  judge  of  the 
Superior  Court  of  New  Hampshire.  He  was  elected  to 
the  General  Court  and  State  Legislature  of  New  Hamp- 
shire.    He  died  June  24,  1803,  aged  eighty-nine  years. 

Dr.  Jonathan  Arnold,  of  Rhode  Island,  was  a  member 
of  the  Assembly  of  that  State  and  of  the  Continental 
Congress.  He  represented  Rhode  Island  in  the  United 
States  Senate  from  1793  to  1797. 

Dr.  Oliver  Wolcott,  of  Connecticut,  became  one  of 
the  most  eminent  men  of  his  time.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress  for  three  years  and  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  1780 
he  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  the  Continental 
army.     After  the  war  he  became  governor  of  the  State. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  239 

Dr.  John  Dickinson,  of  Connecticut,  was  a  member  of 
the  State  Legislature,  and  after  the  war  judge  of  the 
District  Court. 

In  Pennsylvania  most  of  the  medical  men  seem  to 
have  held  fast  to  their  professional  line  of  work,  but  there 
were  some  notable  exceptions,  who  either  combined  other 
employment  with  their  medical  labors,  or  gave  up  the 
latter  to  devote  themselves  to  civil  or  military  matters. 

Among  the  latter  we  may  place  Dr.  William  Irvine 
(his  name  was  frequently  written  Irwine),  who  at  the 
commencement  of  the  war  had  a  large  practice  in  the 
town  of  Carlisle.  He  was  a  member  of  the  State  Con- 
vention in  1774,  and  on  June  10,  1776,  was  commis- 
sioned a  colonel  in  the  Continental  army.  He  later  be- 
came a  brigadier-general.  He  was  much  distinguished 
for  his  personal  bravery  and  as  an  able  disciplinarian. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  whose  career  is  noticed  elsewhere, 
v/as  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  and  a  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  but  in  the  subse- 
quent events  he  placed  himself  where  his  talents  would 
seem  to  have  proved  themselves  most  useful, — in  the 
hospital  department  of  the  army. 

Dr.  William  Shippen,  Sr.,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  a 
member  of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  1778,  but  as  he 
was  even  then  sixty-six  years  old,  he  did  not  subse- 
quently take  any  very  prominent  part  in  public  affairs. 
His  son  William's  services  to  the  patriot  cause  were 
sufficient,  however,  to  make  it  perfectly  proper  for  the 
old  gentleman  to  rest  on  his  laurels. 

New  Jersey  furnished  many  physicians  to  the  cause, 
but  only  one  had  a  noteworthy  career  in  civil  life.  This 
was  Dr.  John  Beattie,  who  was  a  native  of  Bucks  County, 
Pennsylvania,  but  received  his  education  and  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  mature  life  in  New  Jersey.    He  gradu- 


240  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

ated  from  Princeton  in  1769  and  studied  medicine  under 
Dr.  Benjamin  Rush.  He  entered  the  army  in  the  first 
days  of  the  war,  and  in  September,  1776,  was  appointed 
a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Pennsylvania  Line.  He  was 
shortly  after  made  prisoner  by  the  English,  and  was  in 
captivity  for  several  years.  On  attaining  his  liberty  he 
was,  in  1779,  made  commissary-general  of  prisoners. 
After  the  war  he  settled  in  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  to 
practise  medicine.  He  was  soon,  however,  called  into 
public  life  as  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  and  of 
the  Constitutional  Convention.  In  1793  he  was  elected 
to  Congress.  In  1795  he  was  chosen  secretary  of  the 
State  of  New  Jersey.  He  died  on  April  30,  1826,  aged 
seventy-seven  years. 

Virginia  presents  a  number  of  physicians  occupying 
public  station.  Among  these  we  would  give  first  place 
to  the  gallant  Hugh  Mercer,  one  of  Washington's  most 
intimate  friends.  He  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  who  had 
served  as  an  assistant  surgeon  in  the  army  of  the  un- 
fortunate Prince  Charles  Edward  at  the  battle  of  Cul- 
loden  in  1745.  After  the  disastrous  defeat  of  the  prince's 
army  Dr.  Mercer  had  fled  to  America  and  settled  in 
Virginia.  He  had  been  an  officer  in  the  Virginia  troops 
which  formed  part  of  Braddock's  expedition,  and  had  on 
that  occasion  been  thrown  much  with  Washington.  He 
had  embraced  the  Revolutionary  cause  with  ardor  and 
had  organized  a  considerable  number  of  troops  in  Vir- 
ginia. On  the  5th  of  June,  1776,  Congress  appointed 
him  a  brigadier-general.  He  did  not  live  long  to  enjoy 
his  position,  as  on  January  3,  1777,  he  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Princeton.  He  was  attended 
in  his  last  moments  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush. 

Theodoric  Bland,  of  Virginia,  was  a  delegate  to  the 
first  Continental   Congress,   and  was  again  delegate  to 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  241 

Congress  from  1780  to  1783.  He  raised  a  cavalry  troop, 
which  he  commanded  in  person,  and  which  reflected  great 
credit  on  his  mihtary  talents. 

Dr.  Arthur  Lee  was  a  physician  in  Williamsburg, 
Virginia.  At  the  Revolution,  however,  he  went  into 
public  life.  In  1781  he  was  a  member  of  the  State 
Assembly,  and  served  in  Congress  from  1782  to  1783. 
He  subsequently  held  several  appointments  in  the  diplo- 
matic service. 

Dr.  Walter  Jones,  of  Virginia,  studied  medicine  at 
Edinburgh,  graduating  about  the  year  1770.  He  was 
appointed  by  Congress,  on  April  11,  1777,  as  physician- 
general  of  the  ^Middle  Department.  After  the  war  he 
was  returned  to  Congress. 

North  Carolina  boasts  of  three  physicians  who  achieved 
reputation  in  civil  life.  Dr.  Nathaniel  Alexander  gradu- 
ated from  Princeton  College,  practised  medicine  in  Meck- 
lenburg, North  Carolina,  became  a  surgeon  in  the  Con- 
tinental army,  and  after  the  war  was  elected  governor 
of  the  State. 

Dr.  Ephraim  Brevard  graduated  from  Princeton  Col- 
lege, studied  medicine,  and  finally  practised  in  the  town 
of  Charlotte,  North  Carolina.  It  was  Dr.  Brevard  who 
drafted  the  famous  Mecklenburg  Resolution,  which 
passed  on  May  20,  1775,  at  a  public  town-meeting  in 
that  place,  proclaiming  much  the  same  principles  as 
those  subsequently  embodied  in  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence. He  was  a  surgeon  in  the  Continental  army, 
was  made  prisoner  at  the  capture  of  Charleston  by  the 
British,  and  died  shortly  after  his  release. 

Dr.  Hugh  Williamson  was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  but 
lived  and  practised  medicine  at  Edenton,  North  Caro- 
lina. He  served  during  the  war  as  surgeon  in  the  North 
Carolina  militia.    He  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  178 1 

16 


242  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

and  1782.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  State  of  North 
Carohna. 

South  Carolina  furnishes  two  prominent  names, — Drs. 
David  Ramsay  and  David  OHphant.  David  Ramsay  was 
a  native  of  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
was  born  on  April  2,  1749.  He  graduated  from  Prince- 
ton in  1765,  and  subsequently  took  up  the  study  of  medi- 
cine in  the  Medical  Department  of  what  is  now  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  but  was  then  the  College  of 
Philadelphia.  While  studying  medicine  he  became  the 
intimate  friend  of  Benjamin  Rush.  He  received  the  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Medicine  in  1772,  His  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  was  conferred  on  May  11,  1780,  and 
the  mandamus  conferring  it  says,  "And  the  Degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  on  David  Ramsay,  now  prisoner 
with  the  enemy."  ^  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
he  was  practising  medicine  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 
He  served  in  the  militia  of  that  State  as  surgeon,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  from  1776  to  the 
end  of  the  war.  In  1782  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress.  In  1785  he  was  again  elected  to  that  body, 
and  in  the  absence  of  the  President  of  Congress,  John 
Hancock,  he  served  for  one  year  as  presiding  officer. 
In  1785  he  published  his  "  History  of  the  Revolution  in 
South  Carolina,"  and  in  1790  his  famous  "  History  of 
the  American  Revolution."  He  was  the  author  of  many 
other  minor  works,  chiefly  of  an  historical  character.  He 
died  May  8,  181 5. 

Dr.  David  Oliphant  was  prominent  as  a  surgeon  in  the 
hospital  department  of  the  Continental  army.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  North  Carolina,  and  after 
the  war  became  judge  of  the  District  Court. 

^  Carson's  History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  243 

In  the  Revolutionary  annals  of  Georgia  there  are  the 
names  of  three  medical  men  who  deserve  remembrance 
for  the  prominence  of  the  parts  they  sustained  in  the 
struggle  with  the  mother-country. 

Dr.  Noble  Wimberly  Jones  was  born  in  England  in 
1723  or  1724.  His  father  was  a  physician  who  had 
accompanied  General  Oglethorpe  to  America  when  he 
founded  the  colony  of  Georgia,  It  was  from  him  that 
the  younger  Jones  derived  his  knowledge  of  medicine. 
The  son  took  a  prominent  part  from  the  very  first  in 
the  Revolutionary  proceedings.  He  was  Speaker  of  the 
Georgia  Legislature.  When  the  British  captured  Charles- 
ton he  fell  into  their  hands  and  remained  a  prisoner  for 
some  months.  After  his  release,  in  July,  1780,  he  came 
to  Philadelphia,  where  he  practised  medicine  until  1782. 
He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  Georgia  from  1780 
to  1782,  when  he  returned  to  Georgia  and  was  chosen 
member  of  the  State  Assembly  and  shortly  afterwards 
its  Speaker.  Subsequently  he  moved  to  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  where  he  practised  medicine  until  1788, 
when  he  returned  to  Savannah,  and  enjoyed  a  large  prac- 
tice in  that  city  until  his  death,  on  January  i,  1805. 

Dr.  Lyman  Hall,  of  Georgia,  was  a  delegate  to  the 
first  Congress  of  the  colonies  at  Philadelphia,  and  serving 
in  the  same  capacity  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence  in  1776.  In  1783  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Georgia. 

Dr.  Nathaniel  Brownson,  of  Georgia,  was  also  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Continental  Congress  of  1776.  He  served 
as  a  surgeon  in  the  Continental  army.  After  the  war 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Georgia  State  Legislature, 
and  later  was  elected  governor  of  the  State. 

At  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  colonists  the  latter  possessed  no  regularly  or- 


244  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

ganized  army,  and  of  course  had  no  system  for  the  care 
of  such  of  their  number  as  might  be  wounded  or  become 
sick,  but  there  was  no  lack  of  voluntary  medical  aid  and 
surgical  assistance  rendered  by  the  profession  to  the 
earlier  sufferers  in  their  country's  cause. 

There  were  nine  patriotic  physicians  who  furnished 
voluntary  succor  to  those  wounded  in  the  fights  at  Lex- 
ington and  Concord, — viz.,  Drs.  William  Aspinwall, 
John  Brooks,  John  Cumming,  William  Dexter,  Eliphalet 
Downer,  Timothy  Minot,  Oliver  Prescott,  Joseph  War- 
ren, and  Thomas  Welch. 

Almost  all  of  these  men  were  of  the  highest  profes- 
sional standing.  Dr.  Aspinwall  is  said  to  have  acquired 
more  skill  and  celebrity  in  the  treatment  of  smallpox 
than  any  other  physician  of  his  time  in  New  England. 
In  the  days  before  the  discovery  of  vaccination,  when 
it  was  the  custom  to  inoculate  for  smallpox,  he  had  the 
reputation  of  having  performed  the  operation  more  often 
than  any  one  else.  He  had  a  private  hospital  for  that 
purpose  in  Brookline,  Massachusetts.     Thacher  says, — 

"  He  continued  in  the  successful  treatment  of  this  disease  [by 
this  method]  till  the  general  introduction  of  vaccine  inoculation. 
He  had  made  ample  accommodation  for  enlarged  practice,  and  estab- 
lished what  might  have  been  justly  deemed  a  sure  foundation  for 
prosperity,  when  vaccine  was  first  introduced.  He  well  knew  that 
if  vaccination  possessed  the  virtues  ascribed  to  it,  his  schemes  of 
fortune  and  usefulness  arising  from  inoculation  at  his  hospital  were 
ruined,  that  he  should  be  involved  in  loss  and  his  anticipations  of 
fortune  would  be  blasted.  But  as  an  honest  man  and  faithful  physi- 
cian, he  deemed  it  his  duty  to  inquire  into  the  efficacy  of  the  novel 
substitute.  With  the  utmost  alacrity,  therefore,  he  gave  the  experi- 
ment a  fair  trial,  promptly  acknowledged  its  efficacy,  and  relinquished 
his  own  establishment." 

Drs.  John  Brooks  and  Joseph  Warren  we  have  already 
noticed. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  245 

Dr.  John  Gumming  was  a  colonel  in  the  colonial  militia 
and  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Congress,  but  it  is  sad 
to  record  that  he  was  possessed  of  such  a  faint  heart  that, 
owing  to  their  lack  of  military  resources,  he  became  con- 
vinced the  colonists  would  not  succeed  in  throwing  off 
the  yoke  of  Great  Britain,  and  consequently  he  resigned 
his  positions  and  retired  into  private  life  soon  after  the 
conflict  raged.  However,  this  course  did  not  seem  to  have 
prevented  his  subsequently  acquiring  a  very  large  practice 
and  leading  a  highly  successful  professional  life. 

Dr.  Oliver  Prescott,  Jr.,  was  extremely  active  in  ad- 
vancing the  patriot  cause  from  an  early  date.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Provincial  Gongress  of  Massachusetts 
and  became  a  major-general  of  the  militia  of  the  colony. 

Dr.  Eliphalet  Downer  practised  medicine  in  Roxbury, 
Massachusetts;  he  became  a  regimental  surgeon  in  the 
Gontinental  army,  and  subsequently  was  surgeon  to  the 
cutter  "  Dolphin." 

Dr.  Thomas  Welch  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1772, 
and  was  later  surgeon  to  the  Twenty-seventh  Gontinental 
Regiment. 

Dr.  William  Ward  continued  in  the  Gontinental  army, 
first  as  surgeon's  mate,  in  which  capacity  he  served  at 
Bunker  Hill,  afterwards  as  surgeon. 

Dr.  Timothy  Minot  graduated  at  Harvard  in  the  class 
of  1747.  He  practised  medicine  in  Goncord,  Massachu- 
setts, and  was  highly  successful. 

Dr.  William  Dexter  was  born  on  April  17,  1755.  He 
studied  medicine  under  Dr.  Flint,  of  Shrewsbury,  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  continued  in  the  medical  department  until 
the  end  of  the  war. 

The  American  soldiers  who  were  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill  were  removed  to  the  northern  and  west- 
ern sides  of  the  hill,  where  they  received  surgical  atten- 


246  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

tion  from  the  surgeons  accompanying  the  army.  Froth- 
ingham^  mentions  the  following  surgeons  as  attached 
to  regiments  engaged  in  that  action, — namely,  David 
Jones,  surgeon  of  Colonel  Samuel  Gerrish's  Massachu- 
setts regiment;  Obadiah  Williams,  surgeon  of  Colonel 
John  Stark's  New  Hampshire  regiment;  Ezra  Green, 
surgeon  of  Colonel  James  Reed's  regiment;  Thomas 
Kittredge,  surgeon  of  Colonel  James  Frye's  regiment. 
Lieutenant-Colonel  James  Bricket,  of  Colonel  Frye's 
regiment,  was  a  physician  and  seems  to  have  served  in 
a  medical  rather  than  a  military  character. 

The  following  physicians  were  also  present  at  Bunker 
Hill,  either  in  a  professional  or  military  capacity : 

Dr.  Elijah  Adams  was  surgeon's  mate  in  Israel  Put- 
nam's regiment. 

Dr.  Jacob  Bacon  was  surgeon's  mate  in  Colonel  Scam- 
mel's  regiment. 

Dr.  Samuel  Blanchard  served  in  the  ranks  of  the 
militia.  On  July  5,  1775,  he  was  appointed  surgeon's 
mate  in  Colonel  Gerrish's  regiment. 

Dr.  John  Crocker  was  present  at  the  battle,  though  in 
just  what  capacity  I  have  been  unable  to  ascertain.  On 
July  5,  1775,  he  was  appointed  surgeon  to  Colonel  Scam- 
mel's  regiment. 

Dr.  William  Dexter  was  surgeon's  mate  in  Colonel 
Ward's  regiment. 

Dr.  Eliphalet  Downer  was  present  as  a  surgeon. 

Dr.  Edward  Durant  was  present  in  the  same  capacity. 
On  July  5,  1775,  he  was  appointed  surgeon  to  Colonel 
Mansfield's  regiment. 

Dr.  John  Hart  was  surgeon's  mate  of  Colonel  Pres- 
cott's  regiment. 

*  Siege  of  Boston. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  247 

Dr.  Martin  Herrick  served  in  the  ranks  at  Bunker  Hill. 
He  was  appointed  surgeon's  mate  in  Colonel  David 
Hitchcock's  regiment  in  1776,  serving  until  the  end  of 
that  year.  He  was  in  the  army  again  in  1777.  In  1778 
he  was  surgeon  to  the  ship  "  Tyrannicide."  In  1781 
he  was  captured  by  the  English.  He  was  at  one  time 
assistant  surgeon  to  Dr.  John  Brooks.  He  died  at  Read- 
ing, July  25,  1820,  aged  seventy- four  years. 

Dr.  Walter  Hastings  was  present  as  a  surgeon.  On 
July  5,  1775,  he  was  appointed  a  surgeon  in  the  army. 
He  served  in  that  capacity  in  Colonel  Bridge's  regi- 
ment. 

Dr.  Harris  Clay  Fridges  served  as  a  surgeon.  On  July 
5,  1775,  he  was  appointed  surgeon's  mate  in  Colonel  John 
Mansfield's  regiment. 

Dr.  Isaac  Hurd  was  present,  though  in  what  capacity 
I  do  not  know.  He  was  appointed  a  surgeon  in  the 
Massachusetts  militia  in  June,  1777. 

Dr.  Aaron  Putnam  was  present,  probably  profession- 
ally. On  July  5,  1775,  he  was  appointed  surgeon's  mate 
in  Colonel  James  Frye's  regiment.  On  January  i,  1776, 
he  was  surgeon's  mate  of  Colonel  Baldwin's  (Twenty- 
sixth)  regiment. 

Dr.  David  Shepard  was  surgeon  to  Colonel  Danielson's 
regiment.  In  1777  he  was  in  Lieutenant-Colonel  Robin- 
son's (Third)  regiment. 

Dr.  Isaac  Spofford  was  surgeon  of  Colonel  Nixon's 
regiment. 

Dr.  William  Vinal  was  surgeon's  mate  in  Colonel 
Gardiner's  regiment. 

Dr.  Abraham  Watson  was  present  as  a  surgeon.  On 
July  5,  1775,  he  was  appointed  surgeon  of  Colonel  Gardi- 
ner's regiment. 

Dr.  Levi  Willard  was  present  as  surgeon.     On  July  5, 


248  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

1775,  he  was  appointed  surgeon  of  Colonel  Reed's  regi- 
ment. 

Dr.  Joseph  Warren  fell  fighting  as  a  soldier.  His 
brother,  Dr.  John  Warren,  was  not  present  at  the  fight, 
but  came  to  the  battle-field  after  it  was  over  to  search  for 
his  brother,  and  in  attempting  to  pass  the  lines  was 
wounded  with  a  bayonet  by  a  sentry. 

Other  surgeons  who  attended  the  wounded  at  the 
battle  were  William  Eustis,  David  Townsend,  and  Samuel 
Tenny. 

After  the  battle  and  subsequently  to  the  various  fights 
about  Boston  the  wounded  were  removed  to  houses, 
which  were  converted  into  temporary  hospitals,  in 
Charlestown,  Watertown,  Roxbury,  and  Cambridge.  In 
Edward  Warren's  ''  Life  of  John  Warren"  there  is  a 
letter  from  the  latter  to  John  Hancock,  dated  October 
9,  1775,  which  presents  so  interesting  a  picture  of  the 
difficulties  besetting  the  surgeons  at  that  time  that  I 
insert  it  almost  in  full. 

Warren  had  been  surgeon  to  Colonel  Timothy  Picker- 
ing's regiment,  but,  when  only  twenty-two  years  old,  he 
was  made  senior  surgeon  of  the  hospitals  at  Cambridge. 
James  Thacher  was  his  surgeon's  mate,  and  said  of 
him,  "  This  gentleman  has  acquired  a  great  reputation  in 
his  profession,  and  is  distinguished  for  his  humanity  and 
attention  to  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers,  and  for  his 
humane  disposition." 

Warren  wrote, — 

"  Sir, — At  the  request  of  a  number  of  gentlemen  employed  in 
the  American  hospital  at  Cambridge,  I  have  been  prevailed  upon, 
though  I  cannot  boast  the  honor  of  a  personal  acquaintance  with 
you,  to  assume  the  freedom  of  representing  to  your  honor,  as  Presi- 
dent of  the  grand  Congress  of  the  United  Colonies,  some  incon- 
veniences under  which  we  labor;  and  I  do  it  with  the  greater  con- 
fidence, when  I  reflect  upon  the  intimacy  of  that  friendship  which 


*    1 


F)K.  John  Wakkf.n. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  249 

I  know  subsisted  between  you  and  a  person  whose  fall  I  have  pecu- 
liar cause  to  mourn.  Though  I  most  sensibly  feel  the  complicated 
loss  of  a  friend,  a  patron,  and  a  brother,  yet  I  mean  not  to  avail 
myself  of  any  advantages  which  might  result  from  my  near  connec- 
tion with  him,  in  my  present  application.  .  .  .  Dr.  Foster  is  ap- 
pointed temporary  Director  of  the  hospitals,  and  the  care  which  in 
consequence  devolves  upon  him  renders  him  incapable  of  attention 
to  the  business,  which,  as  I  have  the  honor  to  be  next  on  the  estab- 
lishment, I  am  requested  to  perform.  The  suspension  of  the  late 
Director  from  his  station,  has  put  us  into  great  confusion,  by  reason 
of  our  not  being  able  to  acquaint  ourselves  with  the  particulars  of 
the  institution.  We  cannot  obtain  any  information  from  him.  We 
have  been  for  some  time  past  expecting  warrants  from  the  Con- 
tinental Congress,  but  have  not  yet  received  them.  We  should  be 
extremely  gratified  by  having  them  expedited  to  us,  or  some  direc- 
tions which  might  remedy  the  inconveniences  we  experience  from 
the  fluctuating  state  we  are  at  present  in.  The  gentleman  above 
referred  to  informed  us  that  he  was  about  to  write  to  the  Congress, 
recommending  an  additional  appointment  of  two  to  the  present  num- 
ber of  surgeons,  four  only  being  already  appointed,  by  which  means 
it  happens  that  two  gentlemen  at  present  officiate  as  chief  surgeons 
at  Roxbury,  under  an  uncertainty  with  regard  to  their  continuance, 
and  are  very  importunate  either  to  be  confirmed  or  receive  a  dis- 
mission. There  are  four  houses  here,  appropriated  to  the  purpose 
of  receiving  the  sick  and  wounded  in  Cambridge,  by  the  names  of 
the  Washington,  Putnam,  Lee,  and  Convalescent  Hospitals,  all  of 
which  contain,  at  present,  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  patients, 
being  all  the  sick  of  the  army  in  Cambridge,  excepting  such  as 
are  so  slightly  ill  as  to  be  attended  with  convenience  in  camp.  The 
number  is  rather  upon  the  decrease,  and  but  a  small  number  have 
hitherto  died.  Three  houses  are  improved  for  the  same  purpose 
at  Roxbury ;  the  number  of  sick  and  wounded  I  cannot  ascertain. 
Those  surgeons  who  are  already  appointed  are  stationed  in  the 
several  houses  in  Cambridge ;  the  two  who  stand  candidates  attend 
to  those  at  Roxbury.  We  cannot  obtain  information  whether  the 
appointments  are  to  receive  the  sanction  of  the  Congress,  or  whether 
the  Director  was  invested  with  a  discretionary  power  to  make  them, 
without  a  necessity  of  their  being  ratified  by  any  other  authority. 
The  only  person  here  from  whom  we  could  expect  an  answer  to 
our  queries  is  secluded  from  the  whole  world,  and  no  person  is 
admitted  to  an  interview  with  him.  Another  article,  to  which,  if 
I  am  not  too  tedious,  I  would  beg  your  attention,  is  our  deficiency 
with  regard  to  medicines.  We  are  already  destitute  of  a  number 
of  capital  articles,  and  I  fear  the  difficulty,  perhaps  the  impraciica- 


250  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

bility  of  importing  a  sufficiency,  will  increase  the  scarcity.  ...  A 
variety  of  articles,  the  natives  of  this  country,  might  be  mentioned, 
which  are  indued  with  the  most  active  qualities ;  suffice  to  mention 
one.  The  bark  of  the  willow  root  has  been  found  of  late  (and  I 
have  repeatedly  experienced  it)  to  answer  many  intentions  of  the 
Peruvian  bark,  one  of  the  most  important  articles  in  the  whole 
materia  medica ;  of  which  the  demand  has,  of  late,  been  so  great, 
that  it  has  got  to  be  one  of  the  most  expensive  medicines.  ...  If 
your  honor  can  attend  to  the  care  of  transmitting  the  regulations 
for  the  hospitals  to  us  at  Cambridge  speedily,  it  will  greatly  con- 
duce to  the  benefit  of  the  public.  In  the  interim,  I  am  your  honor's 
most  obedient  and  humble  servant 

"  John  Warren. 
"  Hon.  John  Hancock,  Esq." 

Very  shortly  after  this  Dr.  Warren  was  appointed 
director-general  of  the  hospital. 

It  became  necessary  later  in  the  history  of  the  camp 
about  Boston  to  provide  a  special  hospital  for  the  accom- 
modation of  a  number  of  smallpox  patients,  that  disease 
having  appeared  among  the  soldiers.  On  June  27,  1775,' 
the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  ordered  such 
a  hospital  to  be  opened. 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  sick  and  wounded  in  the 
army  besieging  Boston,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
hospitals  in  the  camp,  pointed  to  the  urgent  necessity  for 
the  proper  organization  of  a  medical  department  com- 
petent to  attend  to  the  army's  wants.  In  the  early  days 
of  the  siege  each  regiment  that  came  to  camp  brought  with 
it  as  surgeon  whomsoever  the  colonel  saw  fit  to  appoint, 
and  in  some  instances  the  colonels  seem  to  have  judged 
that  a  surgeon  would  be  a  useless  incumbrance  and  not 
to  have  appointed  one  at  all.  There  were  no  definite 
regulations  as  to  what  class  of  cases  should  remain  for 
treatment  in  regimental  hospitals  and  which  should  be 
sent  to  the  general  hospital.  The  surgeons  were  without 
any  definite  authority,  absolutely  destitute  of  any  medical 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  251 

or  surgical  supplies,  except  those  provided  by  private 
means,  and  in  many  cases  as  ignorant  and  ill-educated 
men  as  could  well  have  been  found.  The  Provincial  Con- 
gress of  Massachusetts  endeavored  to  remedy  these  con- 
ditions at  an  early  date.  On  May  8,  1775,  they  appointed 
a  committee,  consisting  of  Drs.  Church,  Holten,  Taylor, 
and  Dinsmore,  subsequently  adding  the  names  of  Whiting 
and  Bayliss,  "  to  examine  such  persons  who  are  or  may 
be,  recommended  as  surgeons  for  the  army  now  forming 
in  the  Colony."  On  June  16  they  added  Drs.  Hall  and 
Jones  to  the  committee,  its  duties  having  increased  so  as 
to  exceed  the  capacities  of  the  original  members  to  attend 
to  them  properly.  On  June  18,  1775,  Drs.  Church,  Tay- 
lor, and  Whiting  were  appointed  a  committee  to  "  con- 
sider what  method  is  proper  to  be  taken  to  supply  the 
hospitals  with  surgeons,"  and  also  to  report  on  the  neces- 
sary equipment  for  the  establishment  of  hospitals  for  the 
troops. 

On  the  22d  of  June,  three  days  later,  the  commanding 
officers  of  the  Massachusetts  regiments  were  ordered  to 
present  to  this  committee  the  names  of  the  medical  men 
who  were  desirous  of  serving  as  surgeons  or  surgeon's 
mates  in  their  respective  commands,  and  to  cause  these 
gentlemen  to  present  themselves  before  the  committee  for 
examination  as  to  their  qualifications  for  the  positions. 

James  Thacher^  has  left  us  an  interesting  account  of 
the  manner  in  which  he  received  his  first  appointment  in 
the  medical  department  of  the  Revolutionary  army.  In 
1775  he  had  just  completed  his  medical  studies  under 
Dr.  Hersey,  of  Barnstable,  Massachusetts,  and  he  solicited 
an  appointment  in  the  hospital  at  Cambridge.  A  medical 
board  consisting  of  Drs.   Holten  and  Taylor  had  been 

*  Military  Journal. 


252  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

appointed  to  examine  the  candidates,  and  on  the  day  fixed 
for  that  purpose  he  appeared  before  them. 

"  On  the  day  appointed  the  medical  candidates,  sixteen  in  num- 
ber, were  summoned  before  the  board  for  examination.  This  busi- 
ness occupied  about  four  hours;  the  subjects  were  anatomy,  physi- 
ology, surgery,  and  medicine.  It  was  not  long  after  that  I  was 
happily  relieved  from  suspense,  by  receiving  the  sanction  and 
acceptance  of  the  board,  with  some  acceptable  instructions  relative 
to  the  faithful  discharge  of  duty,  and  the  humane  treatment  of 
those  soldiers  who  may  have  the  misfortune  to  require  my  assist- 
ance. Six  of  our  number  were  privately  rejected  as  being  found 
unqualified.  The  examination  was  in  a  considerable  degree  close 
and  severe,  which  occasioned  not  a  little  agitation  in  our  ranks. 
But  it  was  on  another  occasion,  as  I  am  told,  that  a  candidate  under 
examination  was  agitated  into  a  state  of  perspiration,  and  being 
required  to  describe  the  mode  of  treatment  in  rheumatism,  among 
other  remedies  he  would  promote  a  sweat,  and  being  asked  hoAv  he 
would  effect  this  with  his  patient,  after  some  hesitation  he  replied, 
'  I  would  have  him  examined  by  a  medical  committee.'  " 

Dr.  Lemuel  Hayward  wrote  to  Dr.  Edward  Warren 
concerning  these  examinations  as  follows : 

"  Sir, — Dr.  Morgan  politely  invited  me  to  assist  in  the  examina- 
tion of  the  mates,  but  as  Dr.  Aspinwall  is  sick,  'tis  impossible. 
Must,  therefore,  beg  you  to  use  the  greatest  candor  towards  the 
gentlemen  that  wait  on  you  today.  They  have  both  attended  the 
hospital  with  the  greatest  fidelity,  and  as  to  their  abilities  I  submit 
to  you,  but  I  presume  you  will  find  them  equal  to  their  place.  I 
was  going  to  ask  you  to  propose  questions  to  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  may  not  be  daunted,  but  I  am  too  well  acquainted  with 
your  disposition,  not  to  expect  everything  that  I  can  wish." 

All  which  tend  to  show  us  that  the  examinations  were 
sufficiently  rigorous  in  character  to  maintain  a  high 
standard  in  the  medical  corps  of  the  Massachusetts  troops. 
In  the  other  colonies,  however,  medical  appointments 
seem  to  have  been  made  in  a  most  haphazard  manner, 
without  any  regular  system  whatever.  I  transcribe  a 
curious  petition  to  the  Provincial  Congress  of  New  York 
for  a  medical  position.     There  were  many  similar  to  this 


I)K.  Jamks  Tha(hi:u. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  253 

presented,  and  in  a  great  number  of  instances  the  appli- 
cant seems  to  have  been  appointed  solely  on  the  strength 
of  his  petition : 

"John  Hammell  to  the  Provincial  Congress,  Gentlemen: 
Having  served  an  apprenticeship  of  seven  years  to  Englebert  Kem- 
mena,  practitioner  of  physic  and  surgeon  to  the  city  of  New  York; 
in  which  capacity  being  desirous  of  joining  the  forces  now  raising 
in  this  Province  for  the  maintenance  of  our  rights  and  privileges, 
beg  leave  to  lay  myself  before  the  Honorable  House  for  Its  appro- 
bation a  Recommendation  of  my  character,  and  abilities,  which  de- 
sirous to  support,  I  have  here  enclosed,  wishing  to  have  the  honour 
of  being  your  humble  servant. 

"John  Hammell. 

"New  York,  Tuesday  afternoon,  4th  July,  1775. 

"  John  Hammell,  of  the  city  of  New  York,  having  studied  Physick 
and  Surgery  by  me  with  the  strictest  attention  full  seven  years, 
during  which  time  he  hath  conducted  himself  with  the  greatest 
honesty,  and  sobriety,  and  convinced  of  his  being  capable  of  prac- 
tising, do  commend  him  to  any  person  that  may  occasion  assistance 
of  the  faculty. 

"  Englebert  Kemmena. 

"New  York,  July  3rd,  1775." 

No  other  colony  seems  to  have  attached  the  same  de- 
gree of  importance  to  this  intricate  subject  as  Massa- 
chusetts. In  most  other  instances  the  medical  care  of 
the  soldiers  seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  subsidiary 
matter,  and  it  was  not  until  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  took  up  the  subject  and  promulgated  a  set  of  uni- 
form regulations  for  the  medical  service  that  in  many 
States  any  organization  at  all  had  been  effected. 

On  June  22   the   Massachusetts   Provincial   Congress 

resolved, — 

"  That  [the  colonels]  in  the  Massachusetts  army  be,  and  they  are 
hereby  directed  to  inform  the  committee  appointed  by  Congress  to 
examine  the  surgeons  of  said  army,  whom  they  recommend  for 
surgeons  and  surgeon's  mates  of  their  respective  regiments,  and 
send  them  to  said  committee  for  examination  without  delay  except 
such  as  have  been  examined." 


254  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

On  June  28,  1775,  the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massa- 
chusetts voted,  "  that  there  shall  be  two  surgeons  and 
two  mates  appointed  for  each  hospital  and  commissioned 
accordingly."  The  pay  of  the  surgeons  was  fixed  at  eight 
pounds  a  month,  and  each  mate  was  to  receive  four 
pounds  ten  shillings  a  month. 

On  June  28,  1775,  the  following  was  adopted  as  the 
form  of  commission  for  surgeons  in  the  Massachusetts 
troops : 

"  The  Congress  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay.  To  A.  B.  Greet- 
ing : — Being  informed  of  your  skill  in  surgery,  and  reposing  special 
trust  and  confidence  in  your  ability  and  good  conduct,  we  do  by 
these  presents   constitute  and  appoint  you,   the   said   A.   B.,   to  be 

surgeon  of  the  regiment  on  foot,  whereof  is  Colonel,  raised 

by  the  Congress  aforesaid,  for  the  defence  of  said  Colony.  You 
are,  therefore,  carefully  and  diligently  to  discharge  the  duty  of  a 
surgeon  to  the  said  regiment,  in  all  things  apertaining  thereunto, 
observing  such  orders  and  instructions  as  you  shall  from  time  to 
time  receive  from  the  colonel  of  said  regiment,  according  to  mili- 
tary rules  and  discipline  established  by  said  Congress,  or  any  of 
your  superior  officers,  for  which  this  shall  be  your  sufficient  war- 
rant." 

The  Provincial  Congress  and  Committee  of  Safety  of 
Massachusetts  also  grappled  vigorously  the  question  of 
medical  supplies  for  the  army.     On  May  13,  1775, 

"  The  Committee  of  Safety  voted,  that  General  Thomas  be  de- 
sired to  deal  out  medicine  to  such  persons  as  he  shall  think  proper, 
for  the  use  of  the  sick  soldiers  at  Roxbury,  until  the  surgeons  for 
the  respective  regiments  are  regularly  appointed." 

On  the  following  day  they  empowered  Andrew  Craigie, 
commissary  of  medical  stores,  to  impress  bedding  and 
other  necessaries  for  the  sick. 

On  June  12,  1775,  the  Provincial  Congress  appointed 
Drs.  Whiting  and  Taylor  and  Mr.  Parks  a  committee  to 
report  on  the  best  method  of  supplying  the  surgeons  with 
medical  stores.    They  reported, — 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  255 

"  that  whereas  it  appears  that  there  is  not  as  yet  a  sufficient  number 
of  medicine  chests  provided  to  furnish  each  regiment  with  a  distinct 
chest;  and  whereas  the  Committee  of  Supplies  are  making  provi- 
sion for  supplying  each  regiment  with  such  medicine  chests  as  soon 
as  possible;  therefore,  Resolved,  that  the  Committee  of  Supplies  be, 
and  are  hereby  directed  immediately  to  furnish  the  surgeons  of  the 
First  Regiment  at  Roxbury,  each  of  them  with  a  medicine  chest 
for  the  present,  and  that  all  other  surgeons  in  the  army  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Roxbury  have  free  recourse  to  the  said  chests,  and  be 
supplied  from  them  from  time  to  time  as  they  shall  find  occasion, 
until  more  ample  provision  shall  be  made  for  them,  all  of  which 
is  humbly  submitted." 

The  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  appointed 
a  committee  to  report  on  the  method  of  disposal  of  the 
sick  and  wounded  in  the  camp.  On  July  i  they  reported 
as  follows : 

"  The  committee  appointed  to  devise  means  for  the  better  accom- 
modation of  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  army  reported.  The 
report  was  read  and  is  as  follows,  viz :  In  order  that  all  the  sick 
and  wounded  be  provided  and  taken  care  of,  in  the  best  way  and 
manner  possible,  Resolved,  and  it  is  hereby  Ordered,  That  when 
any  person  in  the  army  is  so  ill,  either  by  a  wound  or  otherwise, 
that  the  surgeon  of  said  regiment  to  which  the  sick  or  wounded 
man  belongs,  finds  the  sick  or  wounded  as  aforesaid  cannot  be 
properly  taken  care  of  in  the  regiment  to  which  he  belongs,  the 
said  surgeon  shall  send  the  sick  or  wounded  as  above  said,  to  the 
hospital  provided  for  the  use  of  the  camps  to  which  they  belong, 
and  a  certificate  of  the  man's  name  and  the  company  and  regiment 
to  which  he  belongs ;  and  in  that  case  the  surgeon  of  said  hos- 
pital shall  receive  said  wounded  or  sick  under  his  care,  and  in 
case  said  hospital  shall  become  too  full,  in  that  case  the  surgeon 
of  said  hospital  shall  send  such  of  his  patients  as  may  be  with 
safety  removed,  to  the  hospital  in  Watertown,  and  a  certificate 
setting  forth  the  man's  name,  what  company  and  regiment  each 
belongs  to,  and  in  that  case  the  surgeon  of  the  Watertown  hospital 
shall  receive  said  sick  and  wounded  under  his  care." 

The  first  action  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  the 
direction  of  organizing  a  medical  department  for  the 
Continental  army  was  taken  on  July  ly,  1775,  when  a 


256  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

committee  was  appointed,  consisting  of  Mr.  Paine,  of 
Alassachusetts,  Mr.  Lewis,  of  New  York,  and  Mr.  Mid- 
dleton,  of  South  Carolina,  to  report  on  the  most  suitable 
plan  for  the  organization  of  a  general  hospital  service 
in  the  Continental  army.  It  was  at  that  time  the  custom 
to  designate  the  medical  department  of  the  army  as  the 
"  Hospital,"  and  this  use  of  the  term  has  given  rise  to 
considerable  confusion.  Later,  as  we  shall  see,  the  medi- 
cal department  was  divided  into  the  hospital  (sometimes 
called  the  general  hospital)  and  the  regimental  service, 
and  surgeons  were  spoken  of  as  hospital  surgeons  or  as 
regimental  surgeons. 

On  July  27,  1775,  Congress  passed  the  following  reso- 
lution : 

"  Resolved,  that  for  the  establishment  of  an  Hospital  for  an  army, 
consisting  of  20,000  men,  the  following  officers  and  other  attend- 
ants be  appointed,  with  the  following  allowance  and  pay: 

"  A  Director-General  and  Chief  Physician,  his  pay  four  dollars 
per  day. 

"  Four  Surgeons  per  day,  each  one  and  a  third  dollars. 

"  One  Apothecary,  one  and  a  third  dollars. 

"  Twenty  Mates,  each  per  day,  two  thirds  dollar. 

"  One  Clerk,  two  thirds  dollar. 

"  Two  storekeepers,  each  four  dollars  per  month. 

"  One  nurse  to  every  ten  sick,  one  fifteenth  of  a  dollar  per  day, 
or  two  dollars  per  month. 

"  Labourers  occasionally. 

"  The  duty  of  the  above  officers :  The  director  to  furnish  medi- 
cines, bedding,  and  all  other  necessaries,  to  pay  for  the  same,  super- 
intend the  whole,  and  make  his  report  to,  and  receive  orders  from 
the  commander-in-chief.  Surgeons,  apothecaries,  and  mates  to  visit 
and  attend  the  sick,  and  mates  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  physicians, 
surgeons,  and  apothecary.  Matron  to  superintend  the  nurses  and 
bedding,  etc.  Nurses  to  attend  the  sick,  and  obey  the  Matron's 
orders.  Clerk  to  keep  accounts  for  the  director  and  storekeepers. 
Storekeeper  to  receive  and  deliver  the  bedding  and  other  neces- 
saries by  order  of  the  director. 

■'  That  the  appointment  of  the  four  surgeons  and  the  apothecary 
be    left   to   the    Director-General    and    Chief    Physician.      That    the 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  257 

mates  be  appointed  by  the  Surgeons,  and  that  the  number  do  not 
exceed  twenty;  and  that  the  number  be  not  kept  on  constant  pay, 
unless  the  sick  and  wounded  should  be  so  numerous  as  to  require 
the  attendance  of  twenty,  and  to  be  dismissed  as  circumstances  will 
admit ;  for  which  purpose  the  pay  is  fixed  by  the  day,  that  they 
may  only  receive  pay  for  actual  service.  That  the  Clerk,  Store- 
keepers, and  Nurses  be  appointed  by  the  Director." 

Dr.  Benjamin  Church,  of  Boston,  one  of  the  best- 
known  physicians  in  New  England,  was  appointed  the 
first  director-general  and  chief  physician  of  the  army. 
Apparently  the  choice  could  not  have  fallen  upon  one 
more  fitted  to  properly  perform  the  functions  of  the  office. 
He  had  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1754,  and  besides 
his  professional  reputation  he  was  well  known  as  a  wit 
and  the  author  of  some  poetical  effusions  of  no  mean 
merit.  He  had  always  loudly  espoused  the  Whig  cause 
and  stood  in  very  great  esteem  as  an  ardent  patriot. 
Within  a  few  months  after  his  appointment,  however, 
he  was  detected  in  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  the 
enemy.  In  October,  1775,  he  was  tried  by  a  general 
court-martial  over  which  General  Washington  himself 
presided. 

On  October  5  Washington  wrote  the  following  re- 
port of  the  affair  to  Congress : 

"  I  have  now  a  painful,  though  a  necessary  duty  to  perform, 
respecting  Dr.  Church,  Director  General  of  the  hospital.  About  a 
week  ago  Mr.  Secretary  Ward,  of  Providence,  sent  up  to  me  one 
Wainwood,  an  inhabitant  of  Newport,  with  a  letter  directed  to 
Major  Cane  in  Boston  in  [occult]  characters,  which  he  said  had 
been  left  with  Wainwood  some  time  ago,  by  a  woman  who  was 
kept  by  Dr.  Church.  She  had  before  pressed  Wainwood  to  take 
her  to  Captain  Wallace,  Mr.  Dudley  the  collector,  or  George  Rowe, 
which  he  declined.  She  then  gave  him  a  letter  with  a  strict  charge 
to  deliver  it  to  either  of  those  gentlemen.  He,  suspecting  some 
improper  correspondence,  kept  the  letter,  and  some  time  after  opened 
it,  but  not  being  able  to  read  it,  laid  it  up,  where  it  remained  until 
he  received  an  obscure  letter  from  the  woman,  expressing  an  anxiety 

17 


258  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

after  the  original  letter.  He  then  communicated  the  whole  matter 
to  Mr.  Ward,  who  sent  him  up  with  the  papers  to  me.  I  imme- 
diately secured  the  woman,  but  for  a  long  time  she  was  proof  against 
every  threat  and  persuasion  to  discover  the  author.  However,  at 
length  she  was  brought  to  a  confession,  and  named  Dr.  Church. 
I  then  immediately  secured  him  and  all  his  papers.  Upon  his  first 
examination,  he  readily  acknowledged  the  letter ;  said  it  was  de- 
signed for  his  brother  Fleming,  and,  when  deciphered,  would  be 
found  to  contain  nothing  criminal.  He  acknowledged  his  never 
having  communicated  the  correspondence  to  any  person  here  but 
the  girl ;  and  made  many  protestations  of  the  purity  of  his  intentions. 
Having  found  a  person  capable  of  deciphering  the  letter,  I,  in  the 
mean  time,  had  all  his  papers  searched,  but  found  nothing  criminal 
among  them.  But  it  appeared  on  inquiry  that  a  confidant  had  been 
among  the  papers  before  my  messenger  arrived.  I  then  called  the 
general  officers  together  for  their  advice — the  result  of  which  you 
will  find  enclosed.  The  deciphered  letter  is  also  enclosed.  The 
army  and  country  are  exceedingly  irritated ;  and,  upon  a  free  dis- 
cussion of  the  nature,  circumstances,  and  consequence  of  this  matter, 
it  has  been  unanimously  agreed  to  lay  it  before  the  honorable  Con- 
gress for  their  special  advice  and  direction." 

Thacher  says  that  the  evidence  upon  which  his  con- 
viction was  based  rested  upon  an  intercepted  letter  to  a 
friend  in  Boston,  which  was  written  in  cipher ;  "  and 
when  deciphered  and  examined,  its  contents  seemed  in 
a  considerable  degree  to  justify  the  plea  which  he  had 
made  that  it  was  designed  as  an  innocent  stratagem  to 
deceive  and  draw  from  the  enemy  some  information  for 
the  benefit  of  the  public."  Many  respectable  and  intelli- 
gent persons  held  that  his  guilt  was  never  established. 
However,  the  court-martial  found  him  guilty.  He  was 
placed  in  prison,  but  in  the  following  year  obtained  per- 
mission to  go  to  the  West  Indies.  Nothing  was  ever 
heard  of  the  ship  in  which  he  sailed  from  the  time  she 
left  port,  and  it  was  supposed  that  she  foundered  at  sea 
and  was  lost  with  all  on  board.^ 

"  Dr.  Church's  defence  of  his  conduct  will  be  found  in  Appen- 
dix A. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  259 

He  was  succeeded  as  director-general  and  chief  physi- 
cian by  Dr.  John  Morgan,  already  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished men  of  his  time. 

Dr.  Morgan  received  his  appointment  in  October,  1775, 
and  at  once  joined  the  army  engaged  in  various  operations 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Boston.  From  the 
outset  of  his  military  career  he  resolutely  set  his  face  to 
combat  the  many  evils  which  daily  resulted  to  the  sick 
and  wounded  from  the  lack  of  organization  and  the  loose 
discipline  which  prevailed  in  the  medical  department.  He 
required  candidates  for  the  last-named  branch  of  the 
service  to  pass  rigid  examinations,  and  he  exercised  a 
vigilant  supervision  over  the  behavior  and  work  of  the 
members  of  the  corps. 

There  was  much  jealousy  and  disputation  between  the 
regimental  surgeons  and  those  attached  to  the  general 
hospital  service.  It  seemed  best  that  all  supplies  to  regi- 
mental medical  officers  should  be  dealt  out  from  the 
general  hospital  stores,  and  that  the  latter  should  thus  be 
in  some  measure  able  to  control  the  disposition  to  be 
made  of  the  stores.  This  was  resented  by  the  regimental 
surgeons  as  infringing  on  their  rights.  Another  source 
of  contention  was  found  in  the  orders  issued  that  the 
sick  as  far  as  possible  should  be  transferred  from  the 
regimental  to  the  general  hospitals.  The  greatest  diffi- 
culty confronting  Dr.  Morgan,  however,  was  that  of  ob- 
taining hospital  supplies.  The  finances  of  the  Continental 
army  were  never  in  a  particularly  fine  condition;  but 
during  Dr.  Morgan's  career  as  chief  of  the  medical  de- 
partment they  were  at  a  very  low  ebb.  Bandages,  lint, 
and  medicines  were  only  to  be  had  with  the  greatest 
difficulty,  and  that  he  got  them  at  all  seems  to  have  been 
due  to  the  energy  and  perseverance  with  which  he  nagged 
at  Congress  about  the  necessities  of  the  sick. 


26o  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Morgan  made  every  effort  to  have  a  definite  scheme 
drawn  up  by  Congress  regulating  the  respective  relations 
of  the  hospital  and  regimental  surgeons  and  clearly  de- 
fining the  duties  of  each.  As  we  shall  see,  it  was  the 
jealousy  and  insubordination  of  the  regimental  surgeons 
which  finally  had  a  large  part  in  causing  his  dismissal 
from  the  post  of  director-general.  However,  it  must  be 
allowed  that  he  treated  them  w4th  the  utmost  fairness, 
and  tried  his  best  to  allay  the  causes  of  their  discontent. 
In  July,  1776,  he  invited  the  regimental  surgeons  and 
mates  to  meet  him  in  a  conference  for  the  purpose  of 
adjusting  their  differences  and  drawing  up  rules,  to  be 
submitted  to  Congress  for  its  approval,  for  the  future 
government  of  the  medical  department  of  the  army.  In 
his  "  Vindication"  he  publishes  a  copy  of  the  rules  agreed 
upon,  but  they  were  never  adopted,  as,  on  July  17,  1776, 
Congress  passed  the  following  law  settling  the  matter. 
It  was  based  on  a  memorial  presented  to  it  some  time 
previously  by  Dr.  Morgan.     It  provided, — 

"  That  the  number  of  hospital  surgeons  and  mates  be  increased, 
in  proportion  to  the  augmentation  of  the  army,  not  exceeding  one 
surgeon  and  five  mates  to  every  five  thousand  men,  to  be  reduced, 
when  the  army  is  reduced,  or  when  there  is  no  further  occasion  for 
such  a  number. 

"  That  as  many  persons  be  employed  in  the  several  hospitals,  in 
quality  of  storekeepers,  stewards,  managers,  and  nurses,  as  are 
necessary  for  the  service,  for  the  time  being,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
director  of  the  respective  hospitals. 

"  That  the  several  regimental  chests  of  medicine  and  chirurgical 
instruments  which  now  are,  or  hereafter  shall  be,  in  the  possession 
of  the  regimental  surgeons,  be  subject  to  the  inspection  and  inquiry 
of  the  respective  directors  of  Hospitals,  and  the  director-general, 
and  the  said  regimental  surgeons  shall,  from  time  to  time,  when 
thereto  required,  render  account  of  the  said  medicines  and  instru- 
ments to  the  said  director,  or  if  there  be  no  director  in  any  par- 
ticular department,  to  the  director-general ;  the  said  accounts  to 
be   transmitted   to   the   director-general,    and   by   him   to   this    Con- 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  261 

gress,  and  the  medicines  and  instruments  not  used  by  any  regi- 
mental surgeon  to  be  returned,  when  the  regiment  is  reduced,  to  the 
respective  directors,  and  an  account  thereof  by  them  rendered  to 
the  director-general,  and  by  him  to  this  Congress.  That  the  several 
directors  of  hospitals,  in  the  several  departments,  and  the  regi- 
mental surgeons,  where  there  is  no  director,  shall  transmit  to  the 
director-general  regular  returns  of  the  number  of  surgeon's  mates 
and  other  officers  employed  under  them,  their  names  and  pay;  also 
an  account  of  the  expenses  and  furniture  of  the  hospital  under 
their  direction ;  and  that  the  director-general  make  a  report  of 
the  same  from  time  to  time,  to  the  commander-in-chief,  and  this 
Congress. 

"  That  the  several  regimental  and  hospital  surgeons  in  the  sev- 
eral departments  make  weekly  returns  of  the  sick  to  the  respective 
directors  in  their  departments.  That  no  regimental  surgeon  be 
allowed  to  draw  upon  the  hospital  of  his  department  for  any  stores, 
except  medicines  and  instruments ;  and  that  when  any  sick  person 
shall  require  other  stores,  they  shall  be  received  into  said  hospital 
and  the  rations  of  the  said  sick  person  be  stopped,  so  long  as  they 
are  in  the  said  hospital ;  and  that  the  directors  of  the  several  hos- 
pitals report  to  the  commissary  the  names  of  the  sick,  when  received 
into  and  when  discharged,  and  make  a  like  return  to  the  board  of 
treasury. 

"  That  all  extra  expenses  for  bandages,  old  linen,  and  other 
articles  necessary  for  the  service,  incurred  by  any  regimental  sur- 
geon, be  paid  by  the  director  of  that  department,  with  the  approba- 
tion of  the  commander  thereof.  That  no  more  medicines  belonging 
to  the  continent  be  disposed  of  till  further  order  of  Congress. 

"  That  the  pay  of  the  hospital  surgeons  be  increased  to  one  dollar 
and  two-thirds  by  the  day;  the  pay  of  the  hospital  mates  to  one 
dollar  by  the  day,  and  the  pay  of  hospital  apothecary  to  one  dollar 
and  two-thirds  of  a  dollar  by  the  day,  and  that  the  hospital  surgeons 
and  mates  take  rank  of  regimental  surgeons  and  mates. 

"  That  the  director-general  and  the  several  directors  of  hospitals 
be  empowered  to  purchase,  with  the  approbation  of  the  commanders 
of  the  respective  departments,  medicines  and  instruments  for  the 
use  of  their  respective  hospitals,  and  draw  upon  the  paymaster  for 
the  same,  and  make  report  of  such  purchases  to  Congress." 


A  curious  sidelight  on  the  economy  of  Dr.  Morgan's 
administration  is  afforded  in  a  letter  written  by  him  to 
Dr.  John  Warren  on  January  31,  1776: 


262  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  Dear  Sir, — I  received  yours  of  yesterday.  I  am  afraid  of  not 
being  able  to  meet  with  an  opportunity  of  answering  it,  as  I  know 
of  no  conveyance  by  which  to  answer  it.  However,  shall  have  it  in 
readiness  in  case  any  opportunity  offers.  Dear  as  it  is,  I  would 
have  you  engage  a  couple  of  sides  of  the  leather,  which  you  say 
the  saddler  says  he  can  spare  you.  Nay,  if  he  can  make  a  shift  to 
spare  a  third  side,  I  would  be  glad  to  have  it,  as  I  fear  it  will  not 
grow  cheaper  by  delajang  to  get  it.  If  you  think  the  woolen  webbing 
strong  enough  for  tourniquets,  I  should  be  glad  to  have  a  piece,  if 
the  price  is  reasonable;  otherwise,  omit  it  for  the  present,  or  secure 
it  as  you  think  most  desirable.  I  have  no  doubt  we  can  get  some 
made  nearer  at  hand  than  Salem,  by  taking  a  little  pains.  I  am, 
dear  sir,  your  most  humble  servant, 

"  John  Morgan." 

The  British  troops  evacuated  Boston  on  March  14, 
1776,  and  hostile  operations  were  then  transferred  to 
other  locaHties.  The  northern  part  of  the  State  of  New 
York  had  long  been  the  theatre  of  much  active  warfare, 
the  Americans  having  invaded  Canada  and  there  having 
been  many  engagements  on  Lake  George  and  in  that 
vicinity. 

The  direction  of  medical  affairs  in  this  region  was 
under  Dr.  Samuel  Stringer,  who  had  been  commissioned 
by  Congress  on  September  14,  1775,  as  "  Director  of  the 
Hospital  and  Chief  Physician  and  Surgeon  for  the  Army 
in  the  Northern  Department."  His  pay  was  four  dollars 
per  day,  and  he  was  authorized  to  appoint  four  surgeon's 
mates. 

Under  his  management,  or  mismanagement,  things 
soon  fell  into  a  disgraceful  state  of  confusion  from  lack 
of  discipline  and  from  the  ignorance  of  the  most  ordi- 
nary medical  matters  displayed  by  the  surgeons  under 
him.  There  was  a  terrible  scarcity  of  medical  supplies, 
and  the  sick  were  obliged  in  many  instances  to  go  un- 
attended from  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of  surgeons. 
By  virtue  of  the  fact  that  he  was  at  a  distance  from  Dr. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  263 

Morgan,  Dr.  Stringer  affected  to  assume  that  he  was  in- 
dependent of  Dr.  Morgan  and  not  subordinate  to  his 
orders.  He  complained  to  Congress  directly  of  the 
scarcity  of  surgeons  and  surgeon's  mates  in  his  depart- 
ment, ignoring  completely  his  superior  officer.  Notwith- 
standing these  slights.  Dr.  Morgan  magnanimously 
sought  to  render  him  all  the  aid  possible.  He  sent  him 
a  number  of  competent  assistants  and  all  the  supplies  he 
could  spare  from  his  own  scanty  stock,  and  he  backed 
up  Dr.  Stringer's  appeals  to  Congress  with  his  own,  but 
that  body  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  both  of  them. 

Norris  ^  gives  some  very  interesting  information  on 
these  aft'airs  of  the  Northern  army.  He  quotes  the  follow- 
ing letter  from  Dr.  Jonathan  Potts  to  Dr.  Morgan : 

"  Fort  George,  August  loth,  1776. 
"  The  distressed  situation  of  the  sick  here  is  not  to  be  described, 
without  clothing,  without  bedding,  or  a  shelter  sufficient  to  screen 
them  from  the  weather.  I  am  sure  your  known  humanity  will  be 
affected,  when  I  tell  you  we  have  at  present  upwards  of  1,000  sick, 
and  crowded  into  sheds,  and  labouring  under  the  various  and  cruel 
disorders  of  Dysenteries,  Bilious  Putrid  Fevers,  and  the  effects  of 
a  confluent  smallpox ;  to  attend  this  large  number,  we  have  four 
seniors  and  four  mates,  exclusive  of  myself,  and  our  little  shop 
doth  not  afford  a  grain  of  Jalap,  Ipecac,  Bark,  Salts,  Opium,  and 
sundry  other  capital  articles,  and  nothing  of  the  kind  is  to  be  had 
in  this  quarter ;  in  this  dilemma,  our  inventions  are  exhausted  for 
succedaneums,  but  we  shall  go  on  doing  the  best  we  can,  in  hopes 
of  a  speedy  supply.  Dr.  Stringer  left  us  some  days  since  in  order 
to  lay  the  situation  of  the  Hospital  before  his  Excellency  General 
Washington,  and  endeavour  to  procure  redress.  .  .  .  Dr.  Stringer 
and  myself  have  had  some  conversation  respecting  the  expediency 
of  acting  under  a  Director-General  of  the  whole  Continent ;  this 
the  Dr.  was  averse  to,  and  mentioned  some  reasons  which  had 
weight  with  me ;  as  you  will  see  the  Dr.,  I  need  not  take  up  your 
time  in  mentioning  them.  For  my  own  part  I  am  resolved  to  be 
governed  by  such  regulations  as  our  wise  Congress  shall  think 
proper,  wishing  nothing  more  than  to  contribute  my  mite  towards 

'  Early  History  of  Medicine  in  Philadelphia. 


264  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

the  relief  of  our  once  distressed  country,  but  now  the  glorious 
independent  States  of  America.  Pray  present  my  most  respectful 
compliments  to  his  Excellency  General  Washington,  and  to  Gen. 
Mifflin,  and  believe  me  to  be,  dear  sir, 

"  Your  affectionate  and  most  humble  servant 

"  JoN^N  Potts." 

On  June  6,  1776,  Congress  had  appointed  Dr.  Potts 
"  Physician  and  Surgeon  in  the  Canada  Department,  or 
at  Lake  George,  as  the  General  shall  direct,  but  that  this 
appointment  shall  not  supersede  Dr.  Stringer." 

On  August  6,  1775,  General  Schuyler  wrote  as  follows 
to  Congress :  ^ 

"  Out  of  about  five  hundred  men  that  are  here,  near  a  hundred 
are  sick,  and  I  have  not  any  kind  of  hospital  stores,  although  I 
had  not  forgot  to  order  them,  immediately  after  my  appointment. 
The  little  wine  I  had  for  my  own  table  I  have  delivered  to  the 
regimental  surgeons.  That  being  expended,  I  can  no  longer  bear 
the  distress  of  the  sick,  and,  impelled  by  the  feelings  of  humanity, 
I  sjjall  take  the  liberty  immediately  to  order  a  physician  from 
Albany  (if  one  can  be  got  there,  as  I  believe  there  may)  to  join 
me,  with  such  stores  as  are  indispensably  necessary.  If  Congress 
should  approve  of  this  measure,  they  will  please  signify  what  allow- 
ance of  pay  will  be  made.  If  not,  I  shall  discharge  the  person, 
whoever  he  be  paying  him  for  the  services  he  may  have  performed." 

General  Thomas,  who  was  in  command  of  a  division 
of  the  Northern  Department  of  the  army,  refused  to  have 
his  troops  inoculated  for  smallpox,  because  it  put  too 
many  of  their  scanty  number  on  the  sick-list.  Smallpox, 
however,  appeared  among  them,  and  they  contracted  the 
disease  in  the  natural  way,  and  soon  his  camp  became 
a  veritable  pest-hole.  As  Washington  Irving  ^  says.  Gen- 
eral Thomas  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  prohibition  on 
June  2,  1776,  when  he  died  of  smallpox. 

'  American  Archives,  fourth  series,  vol.  iii.  p.  48. 
*  Life  of  Washington,  vol.  ii.  p.  241. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  265 

Dr.  Morgan  repeatedly  appealed  to  Congress  for  a 
settlement  of  the  disputes,  which  were  interfering  with  all 
his  attempts  to  introduce  order  in  Dr.  Stringer's  depart- 
ment. Finally  that  body  appointed  an  investigating 
committee,  which  reported  in  November,  1776. 

As  a  result  of  its  report  Congress,  on  January  9,  1777, 
dismissed  Dr.  Stringer  from  his  position,  but  unfortu- 
nately accompanied  his  discharge  with  that  of  Dr.  Mor- 
gan. No  explanation  of  the  reasons  leading  to  this  action 
was  vouchsafed  in  either  case. 

General  Schuyler,  who  commanded  the  Northern  De- 
partment of  the  Continental  army,  was  greatly  angered 
at  Congress  for  discharging  Dr.  Stringer,  and  wrote  some 
very  fiery  letters  expressing  his  opinions,  which  resulted 
in  Congress  passing  a  resolution  censuring  him  for  im- 
proper behavior  in  treating  it  in  an  impertinent  manner. 
The  general  wrote  an  explanation  to  Congress,  which 
Norris  quotes : 

"  In  this  the  power  of  Congress  to  dismiss  their  servants  without 
a  formal  inquiry,  your  memorialist,  for  his  own  part,  never  ques- 
tioned ;  but  its  policy  as  a  general  rule,  he  humbly  begs  leave  to 
observe,  may  be  subject  at  least  to  one  strong  objection;  it  may 
tend  to  prevent  men  of  worth  and  abilities  from  affording  to  the 
public  that  assistance  which  they  are  capable  of  giving,  from  the 
apprehension  that  the  suggestion  of  clamours,  too  often  arising  from 
a  jealousy  of  office,  might  expose  them  to  the  disgrace  and  injury  of 
a  dismission  without  being  heard  in  their  own  defence,  .  .  .  that  he 
took  it  for  granted  that  Congress  was  acquainted,  that  he  had  in 
a  manner  forced  Dr.  Stringer  in  the  service;  that  in  August,  1775, 
when  sickness  was  spreading  through  the  army  under  his  command 
with  great  rapidity,  and  they  were  not  only  destitute  of  competent 
medical  assistance,  but  even  of  medicines,  his  repeated  solicitations, 
supported  by  the  promise  of  a  Member  of  Congress  (the  late  Mr. 
Lynch),  prevailed  on  Dr.  Stringer  to  exchange  an  extensive  and 
well-established  practice  for  your  service,  and  to  appropriate  a 
large  stock  of  his  own  medicines  to  the  public  use,  .  .  .  that  Dr. 
Stringer,  since  his  dismission,  without  any  inquiry  into  his  conduct, 
imputes   the   loss   of  a  profitable  business,   as   well   as  that  of   his 


266  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

medicines,  which  cannot  now  be  replaced,  to  your  memorialist,  who, 
for  that  reason,  could  not  but  be  anxious  to  assign  the  motives  to 
Congress  for  taking  the  measure,  ...  he  had  expressed  his  wish  of 
being  informed  of  the  reasons  for  dismissing  Dr.  Stringer,  not  as 
a  right,  but  merely  as  a  matter  of  compliment,  and  not  from  im- 
patience and  curiosity,  but  with  a  view  to  obviate  that  gentleman's 
complaints,  ...  he  did  not  mean  to  wound  their  dignity,  or  dis- 
pute their  authority." 

This  apolog}^  was  accepted  by  Congress  and  they  with- 
drew their  censure.  Dr.  Stringer,  however,  was  not  re- 
stored to  his  position. 

The  ultimate  facts  leading  to  the  dismissal  of  Dr. 
Morgan  and  his  conduct  subsequent  to  that  event  are 
of  much  interest.  They  are  fully  set  forth  by  Dr.  Mor- 
gan himself  in  the  pamphlet  which  he  published  in  1777, 
under  the  title  '"  A  Vindication  of  his  Public  Character 
in  the  Station  of  Director-General  of  the  Military  Hos- 
pitals and  Physician  in  Chief  to  the  American  Army; 
Anno,  1776.  By  John  Morgan,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor 
of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic  in  the  College  of 
Philadelphia,  Member  of  several  Royal  Colleges  and 
Academies,  and  Philosophical  and  Literary  Societies,  in 
Europe  and  America,  Boston,  1777."  This  little  book 
relates  in  detail  all  the  facts  bearing  upon  Dr.  Morgan's 
career  in  the  army.  He  tells  how  he  had  left  a  large 
and  remunerative  practice,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his 
friends,  to  answer  his  country's  call;  narrates  in  detail 
his  method  of  management  of  the  medical  department, 
the  economy  he  had  introduced  into  its  administration, 
the  discipline  he  had  enforced,  the  way  in  which  he  had 
eked  out  his  supplies  and  managed  to  make  them  in  some 
degree  adequate  for  the  necessities  of  the  troops.  It  is 
by  far  the  most  interesting  literary  relic  of  the  Revolu- 
tion from  a  medical  point  of  view,  and  I  have  drawn 
freely  upon  it  in  my  relation  of  the  events  of  the  time. 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  267 

In  the  Appendix  ^  will  be  found  reprinted  in  full  the 
memorial  of  Dr.  Morgan,  which  he  drew  up  for  Gen- 
eral Washington  at  the  time  of  his  dismissal,  and  which 
he  prints  as  a  part  of  the  "  Vindication."  \\'e  think 
it  will  repay  a  careful  perusal  as  a  true  narrative,  and 
an  interesting  personal  picture  of  the  difficulties  which 
confronted  Morgan  throughout  his  career. 

From  the  moment  of  his  discharge  Dr.  Morgan  devoted 
himself  to  the  task  of  obtaining  an  official  vindication 
from  the  body  which  had  so  shamefully  mistreated  him. 
His  patriotism  was  so  great,  however,  that  he  sank  his 
personal  feelings  in  his  love  for  his  country  and  con- 
tinued to  aid  in  the  work  of  the  medical  department. 

The  view  he  took  of  the  action  of  Congress  is  stated  by 
him  as  follows : 

"  It  is  an  act  into  which  they  were  suddenly  forced  by  a  party 
whom  political  necessity  obliged  them  to  gratify.  But  such  is  my 
opinion  of  the  integrity,  and  such  my  reliance  on  the  honour  of 
Congress,  as  to  believe  that  when  they  are  furnished  with  the 
materials  for  judging  properly,  they  will  be  as  ready  to  do  me 
justice,  as  a  part  of  them  have  been  to  listen  to  the  malice  and 
misrepresentations  of  my  adversaries,  and  to  show  their  magna- 
nimity, by  allowing  that  they  have  been  capable  of  an  error  by  their 
readiness  to  redress  it.  I  have  endeavoured  to  discharge  my  duty 
in  what  I  undertook  from  principle,  according  to  my  degree  of 
knowledge  and  capacity,  with  fidelity  and  diligence ;  and  what  I 
value  more  than  knowledge  or  capacity  alone,  with  humanity;  from 
whence  results  the  approbation  of  a  good  conscience  which  as  my 
enemies,  with  all  their  power  cannot  give,  so  neither  can  they  take 
away." 

Also  in  another  place,  he  wrote, — 

"  But  I  will  not  do  that  Honorable  Body  the  injustice  to  entertain 
a  suspicion  so  derogatory  to  them,  as  to  consider  my  dismission  and 
the  manner  of  it,  as  a  regular,  deliberate  act  of  the  Whole  Body, 
or  what  they  approved.     I  have  heard  it  alleged,  in  their  defence, 

"  Appendix  B. 


268  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

against  so  injurious  a  supposition,  that  many  of  the  most  respectable 
Members  were  absent ;  that  some  of  the  States  were  not  repre- 
sented at  the  time ;  and  that  several  of  the  Members  were  wholly 
opposed  to  it;  that  it  was  an  act  into  which  they  were  suddenly 
forced,  by  the  clamours  of  a  party,  whom  political  necessity,  at 
the  time,  compelled  them  to  gratify." 

Dr.  Morgan  had  been  slighted  a  number  of  times  by 
Congress,  especially  in  the  matter  of  Dr.  Stringer,  but 
what  angered  him  more  than  any  other  of  the  injuries  he 
felt  he  had  received  at  its  hands  was  the  appointment, 
on  October  9,  1776,  of  Dr.  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  as  direc- 
tor of  the  hospitals  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hudson  River. 
Dr.  Shippen  had  been  director  of  the  hospital  at  the  Fly- 
ing Camp  in  the  Jerseys,  and  as  such  had  been  directly 
subject  to  the  authority  of  Dr.  Morgan.  He  was  by  this 
order  of  Congress  placed  upon  an  ec|ual  footing  with 
Dr.  Morgan,  whose  authority  was  henceforth  to  be  limited 
to  the  hospitals  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson.  Dr. 
Shippen  was  ordered  to  report  directly  to  Congress,  thus 
ignoring  Dr.  Morgan,  through  whom  such  reports  had 
hitherto  been  made.  It  is  sad  to  find  Morgan  blaming 
his  quondam  friend  and  colleague  in  the  establishment 
of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania as  the  chief  author  of  his  overthrow,  but  he  does 
so  in  unecjuivocal  language.    He  writes, — 

"  But  I  have  good  grounds  to  believe  that  his  [Dr.  Shippen's] 
underhand  attempts  to  interfere  with  me,  in  my  department,  and 
his  interest  with  a  particular  set,  which  has  been  employed  to 
effect  my  removal,  with  a  view  to  promote  his  design  of  succeeding 
me,  have  operated  more  powerfully  to  accomplish  it,  than  all 
others  that  have  been  held  up,  as  the  ostensible  causes  of  my  re- 
moval which,  however  he  may  think,  from  being  transacted  behind 
a  curtain,  they  lye  concealed,  can  be  easily  traced  to  their  author, 
and  are  of  a  tissue  with  the  rest  of  his  conduct  towards  me,  on 
similar  occasions."  ^^ 

"  Vindication,  p.  24. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  269 

Somewhat  farther  on  he  says, — 

"  Is  it  not  manifest  that  the  Director  and  his  attachments,  have, 
from  his  first  coming  into  the  service,  pursued  such  measures,  as 
they  conceived  were  best  calculated  to  raise  him  over  the  shoulders 
of  every  man,  who  stood  in  his  way,  and  to  constitute  him  Head  of 
the  department.  How  truly  Machiavelian  has  been  his  conduct,  and 
those  who  assisted  him,  per  fas  atque  nefas,  to  accomplish  his  ends, 
whether  right  or  wrong,  to  make  all  things  subservient  to  them. 
...  I  am  persuaded  that  both  he  and  his  adherents,  have  not  only 
watched  for,  but  made  occasions  to  serve  as  a  plausible  pretext,  for 
displacing  me,  to  accomplish  their  own  wishes." 

At  the  time  of  Dr.  Shippen's  appointment  Congress 
was  in  session  at  Philadelphia,  and  to  it  Dr.  Morgan  re- 
paired in  order  that  he  might  obtain  a  definite  explana- 
tion of  the  position  which  Dr.  Shippen  held  in  relation 
to  him.  Samuel  Adams  was  appointed  to  interview  Dr. 
Morgan,  and  what  was  the  latter's  chagrin  and  surprise 
to  learn  that  the  mismanagemient  of  medical  affairs  in 
the  Northern  Department  had  been  largely  ascribed  to 
him,  and  that  because  of  these  complaints  and  of  allega- 
tions of  negligence  on  his  part  in  the  care  of  the  sick  on 
the  Jersey  side  of  the  Hudson  it  had  been  determined  to 
place  the  latter  in  the  care  of  Dr.  Shippen.  Morgan  m- 
dignantly  asserted  his  innocence  of  blame  in  these  matters 
and  demanded  admittance  to  the  floor  of  Congress  that 
he  might  vindicate  himself.  This  was  refused  on  the 
ground  that  Congress  was  too  busy  with  important  state 
and  military  affairs.  Congress  shortly  after  moved  itself 
to  Maryland,  and  Morgan  again  sought  an  opportunity 
to  appear  before  it,  but  was  not  allowed  one.  He  was 
repeatedly  urged  to  resign  in  this  crisis  of  his  affairs,  but 
sturdily  refused  to  do  so.  He  then  quietly  returned,  and 
again  assumed  charge  of  the  sick  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Hudson.    He  drew  up  a  Memorial  addressed  to  Washing- 


270  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

ton,  seeking  a  court  of  inquiry  into  his  management  of 
the  affairs  of  his  department. 

He  gave  this  into  Washington's  hands  on  February  i, 
1777,  and  the  very  next  day  the  order  by  Congress  for 
his  dismissal  was  received. 

Some  of  the  charges  against  him  bore  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  Dr.  Morgan's  personal  honesty,  and  seem  to  have 
caused  him,  if  possible,  more  pain  even  than  the  others. 

In  the  "  Letter  to  a  Friend  in  Philadelphia,"  published 
in  his  "  Vindication,"  he  writes  concerning  accusations 
that  had  been  circulated  charging  him  with  misuse  of  hos- 
pital stores  and  money.  He  sends  him  Boston  newspapers 
containing  a  refutation  of  these  charges,  and  writes, — 

"  The  newspapers  here  referred  to  are  the  Independent  Chronicle, 
of  April  loth,  and  17,  and  the  Boston  Weekly  Advertiser  of  the 
17th ;  from  which  it  may  be  proper  to  acquaint  the  reader,  that  in 
that  of  April  the  loth,  being  informed  of  some  evil  minded  persons 
who  had  taken  upon  them  to  raise  and  circulate  a  number  of  false 
reports  and  groundless  clamours,  at  Boston,  on  account  of  my 
having  taken  possession  of  the  medicines  and  shop  furniture  of  Dr. 
Sylvester  Gardiner,  and  Dr.  William  Perkins,  of  Boston,  for  the 
use  of  the  army;  and  to  alledge  that  many  of  the  sufiferings  of 
the  sick,  in  the  last  campaign,  arose  from  my  having  unjustly  with- 
held from  them  (or  from  the  Regimental  Surgeons)  those  stores 
which  they  were  entitled  to  draw  from  the  General  Hospital.  I 
came  to  Boston  on  purpose  to  call  upon  the  persons  pointed  out, 
as  the  principal  authors  of  those  reports,  requiring  them  to  make 
good  that  charge,  and  at  the  same  time  inviting  any  persons,  who 
had  anything  to  offer  against  me,  that  regarded  the  faithful  dis- 
charge of  my  trust,  to  step  forth,  and  state  their  accusations.  I 
then  promised  to  lay  before  the  publick,  a  faithful  and  exact  ac- 
count of  every  proceeding,  relative  to  the  discharge  of  my  duty  in 
the  above  station,  by  which  they  would  be  enabled  to  judge  whether 
the  charges  were  well-founded,  or  only  proceeded  from  a  spirit 
of  malignity  and  detraction. 

"  In  the  papers  of  the  17th,  I  communicated  the  result  of  that 
examination,  with  a  letter  calling  upon  the  author  of  the  report, 
concerning  the  removal  of  the  medicines,  to  know  what  he  had  to 
offer ;    to   which   he   returned  a   short  evasive  answer,   disclaiming 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  271 

the  charge  which  is  there  published,  together  with  a  full  account  of 
the  transaction.  In  that  paper  the  publick  were  informed,  that  in 
respect  to  the  removal  of  the  drugs,  medicines,  and  shop  furniture 
in  question,  I  had  the  order  of  General  Washington,  in  writing, 
for  what  I  did,  backed  with  a  resolve  of  the  Council  and  Assem- 
bly of  the  State  of  Massachusetts-Bay,  after  a  sequestration  of  the 
property  of  those  persons ;  that  they  were  removed  to  New  York 
for  the  use  of  the  army ; — that  whatever  was  done  by  me,  in  this 
affair,  was  merely  official ; — that  an  inventory  of  the  whole  was 
left  with  the  Boston  Committee,  that  in  case  the  former  owners 
should  be  entitled  to  claim  a  restitution  of  their  effects,  the  value 
might  be  duly  ascertained ; — that  a  particular  and  faithful  account 
of  everything  done  in  this  business,  was  transmitted  to  the  Adju- 
tant General,  to  be  laid  before  the  Commander  in  Chief,  for  which 
I  received  thanks,  for  the  matter  and  manner  of  what  I  had  done ; 
and  that  an  inventory  of  every  hospital  store,  remaining  on  hand, 
being  made  out  by  the  Apothecary  of  the  General  Hospital,  with 
care  and  exactness,  was  transmitted  to  General  Washington  and 
the  Congress,  of  which  I  kept  an  authentic  copy;  concluding  this 
head  with  an  address  to  those  persons,  to  take  shame  and  confusion 
of  face  to  themselves,  who  judging  only  from  the  corruption  of 
their  own  hearts,  appear  to  think  it  impossible  for  men,  to  whom 
much  is  entrusted,  to  keep  free  from  that  pollution  of  hands,  which 
they  find  in  themselves  such  a  proneness  to  contract.  In  regard  to 
the  second  charge,  which  relates  to  the  with-holding  the  hospital 
stores ;  this  being  reported  against  me  by  Dr.  Story,  Surgeon  of 
Col.  Little's  regiment,  I  wrote  a  letter  to  him,  April  8th,  calling  on 
him  to  explain  himself  for  taking  such  unwarrantable  licence,  as 
he  had  done,  assuring  him  that  no  man,  be  his  rank  in  life  what 
it  may,  should  be  suffered  to  do  it,  with  impunity;  Dr.  Story  de- 
clining to  take  any  notice  of  it,  that  letter  was  published  in  the 
Independent  Chronicle,  of  the  17th  of  April,  with  the  following 
Declaration  of  Col.  Joseph  Trumbull,  Esq.,  Commissary-General  of 
the  American  army. 

"  To  all  whom  it  may  concern. 

"  Be  it  known  that — whereas  I  have  been  informed  that  it  has  been 
industriously  propagated  by  some  evil-minded  person,  in  divers  parts 
of  the  Country — that  Dr.  John  Morgan,  late  Director-General  of 
the  Continental  Hospital,  has  drawn  from  the  Commissary-Gen- 
eral's office,  the  well  rations,  for  the  sick,  while  in  the  General 
Hospital,  and  that  he  has  pocketed  the  same  for  his  own  emolument; 
I  have  this  day  made  examination  of  my  books,  clerks,  &c — and 
find  that  I  have  not  a  charge  in  my  books  of  a  single  penny  paid  to 
said   Dr.   Morgan,   or  any  other  Hospital   Surgeon   under  him,   on 


272  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

account  of  rations  for  the  sick;  nor  did  I  ever  Pay  any  thing,  on 
that  account  to  Doctor  Morgan,  so  that  there  cannot  be  the  least 
foundation  for  such  aspersion  of  his  character. — I  have  paid  Large 
Sums  for  the  rations  of  the  sick  in  Regimental  and  Brigade  Hos- 
pitals, to  many  Brigade  and  Regimental  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
but  never  a  farthing  to  said  Doctor  Morgan,  or  any  General  Hos- 
pital Physician  or  Surgeon  whatever. 

"  Given  under  my  hand  at  Hartford,  2nd  of  April,  1777 

"  Joseph  Trumbull 

"  Commissary  General. 

"  N.B.  The  publick  are  now  informed  that  Dr.  Story  having  after- 
wards insinuated — that,  '  when  he  was  properly  called  upon,  he  did 
not  doubt  he  should  be  able  to  support  what  he  had  at  any  time 
advanced.'  I  called  upon  him  in  person,  for  an  explanation,  when 
he  thought  fit  to  deny,  that,  at  the  very  time  he  affirmed  the  suffer- 
ing of  the  sick  to  have  arisen  from  the  cause  assigned,  of  with- 
holding from  the  Regimental  Surgeons,  or  sick  what  he  supposed 
them  entitled  to  draw  from  the  General  Hospital,  (to  which,  how- 
ever, they  had  no  claim)  '  he  had  any  thought  of  Dr.  Morgan's 
intention  to  defraud  the  Continent.'  Lastly,  it  is  proper  it  should  be 
known  that  the  aforementioned  invitation,  if  any  man  had  anything 
to  alledge  against  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  trust  to  step  forth 
and  declare  it,  has  been  also,  printed  in  the  Rhode  Island,  Connecti- 
cut and  Philadelphia  papers,  without  any  the  least  reply;  from 
whence  all  men  may  judge  how  groundless,  as  well  as  malicious, 
those  clamours  were;  and  no  doubt  will,  on  behalf  of  injured 
innocence,  feel  a  just  indignation  at  the  authors  thereof." 

Although,  as  he  states,  similar  cards  were  published 
in  many  newspapers  in  dijfferent  places,  no  one  came  for- 
ward to  verify  the  various  rumors  which  had  been  circu- 
lated by  Dr.  Morgan's  enemies. 

The  surgeons  of  the  general  hospital  service  rallied  to 
Dr.  Morgan's  support  with  generous  ardor.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  they  were,  as  a  rule,  a  distinctly  superior 
class  of  men  to  the  majority  of  regimental  surgeons. 
They  drew  up  a  memorial  of  their  esteem  for  him,  in 
which  they  recounted  the  many  ways  in  which  he  had 
improved  the  medical  service  and  labored  for  the  welfare 
of  the  sick  and  wounded. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  273 

Among  the  names  affixed  to  this  document  were 
those  of  John  Warren,  WilHam  Eustis,  PhiHp  Turner, 
and  Isaac  Ledyard,  and  Morgan  states  that  the  other 
surgeons  of  the  general  hospital,  Drs.  Foster,  Adams, 
McKnight,  and  Burnet,  would  have  testified  in  the  same 
'manner,  but  being  absent  on  duty  their  signatures  were 
unobtainable. 

Immediately  upon  his  discharge  Dr.  Morgan  demanded 
from  Congress  a  formal  investigation  into  the  charges 
upon  which  he  had  been  dismissed.  This  request  was  not 
complied  with  for  more  than  two  years,  the  matter  being 
put  off  by  the  Medical  Committee  of  Congress  on  the 
plea  of  more  pressing  business.  Finally  a  committee  was 
appointed,  consisting  of  Mr.  Drayton,  of  South  Carolina, 
Mr.  Harvey,  of  North  Carolina,  and  Mr.  Witherspoon, 
of  New  Jersey,  to  investigate  the  management  of  the 
medical  department  during  the  time  he  was  at  its  head. 
This  committee  reported  to  Congress,  and  I  reprint  in 
full  the  proceeding  in  Congress  by  which  Dr.  Morgan 
received  the  tardy  acknowledgment  of  his  innocence.  It 
is  dated  June  12,  1779. 

"  Congress  took  into  consideration  the  report  of  the  committee 
to  whom  was  referred  the  Memorial  of  Dr.  John  Morgan,  late 
Director-General  and  Physician-in-Chief  in  the  General  Hospital  of 
the  United  States,  and  thereupon  came  to  the  following  resolution : — 

"  Whereas,  by  the  report  of  the  Medical  Committee  confirmed  by 
Congress  on  the  9th  of  August,  1777,  it  appears  that  Dr.  John 
Morgan,  late  Director-General  and  Chief  Physician  of  the  General 
Hospitals  of  the  United  States,  had  been  removed  from  office  on  the 
9th  of  January,  1777,  by  reason  of  the  general  complaint  of  persons 
of  all  ranks  in  the  army,  and  the  critical  state  of  affairs  at  that 
time ;  and  that  the  said  Dr.  John  Morgan,  requesting  inquiry  into 
his  conduct,  it  was  thought  proper  that  a  Committee  of  Congress 
should  be  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

"  And  Whereas,  on  the  i8th  of  September  last,  such  a  committee 
was  appointed,  before  whom  the  said  Dr.  John  Morgan  hath,  in  the 
most  satisfactory  manner,  vindicated  his  conduct  in  every  respect  as 

18 


274  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

Director-General  and  Physician-in-Chief,  upon  the  testimony  of  the 
Commander-in-Chief,  General  Officers,  officers  in  the  General  Hos- 
pital Department,  and  other  officers  in  the  army,  showing  that  the 
said  Director-General  did  conduct  himself  ably  and  faithfully  in  the 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  his  office ;    Therefore, 

"Resolved,  That  Congress  are  satisfied  with  the  conduct  of  Dr. 
John  Morgan,  while  acting  Director-General  and  Physician-in-Chief 
in  the  General  Hospitals  of  the  United  States,  and  that  this  resolu- 
tion be  published." 

On  April  ii,  1777,  Dr.  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  was  ap- 
pointed Dr.  Morgan's  successor  as  director-general  and 
physician-in-chief  of  the  hospital.  Dr.  Shippen  was  an 
active,  alert,  and  conscientious  man,  and  he  was  deter- 
mined to  maintain  the  high  standard  in  his  department 
which  had  been  inaugurated  by  his  predecessor.  Congress 
also  appointed  the  following  medical  officers  at  the  same 
time  as  Dr.  Shippen  to  the  different  divisions  of  the  army : 

In  the  Middle  Department,  Dr.  John  Cochran  was  made 
physician  and  surgeon-general,  with  Dr.  Walter  Jones  as 
physician-general  and  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush  as  surgeon- 
general.  In  the  Eastern  Department,  Dr.  Isaac  Foster 
was  appointed  as  deputy  director-general,  with  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Burnett  as  physician  and  surgeon-general.  Dr.  Ammi 
Ruhamah  Cutter  as  physician-general,  and  Dr.  Phillip 
Turner  as  surgeon-general.  In  the  Northern  Department, 
Dr.  Jonathan  Potts  was  appointed  deputy  director-gen- 
eral, with  Dr.  John  Bartlett  as  physician  and  surgeon- 
general,  Dr.  Malachi  Treat  as  physician-general,  and  Dr. 
Forgue  as  surgeon-general. 

Dr.  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  held  the  office  of  director- 
general  and  physician-in-chief  of  the  hospital  until  Janu- 
ary, 1 78 1,  when  he  resigned.  His  successor  was  Dr. 
John  Cochran. 

These  appointments  indicate  the  importance  which 
Congress  attached  to  the  various  offices.     The  fame  of 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  275 

Shippen  and  Rush  has  made  their  careers  familiar  to  all. 
Cochran,  Craik,  and  Cutter  had  had  much  experience  as 
army  surgeons  in  the  colonial  wars.  Cochran  was  born 
in  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  on  September  i,  1730. 
He  studied  medicine  under  Dr.  Thompson,  of  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  1755  received  an  appointment  as 
surgeon's  mate  in  the  army  with  which  England  over- 
threw the  colonial  empire  of  France  in  America.  After 
the  war  he  practised  medicine  in  Albany,  New  York, 
where  he  married  a  sister  of  General  Schuyler.  He 
offered  his  services  to  Congress  in  1776.  In  1777,  Gen- 
eral Washington  wrote  Congress  concerning  him  as  fol- 
lows :  ^  ^ 

"  I  would  take  the  liberty  of  mentioning  a  gentleman  whom  I 
think  highly  deserving  of  notice,  not  only  on  account  of  his  abilities, 
but  for  the  very  great  assistance  which  he  has  afforded  us  in  the 
course  of  this  winter,  merely  in  the  nature  of  a  volunteer.  This 
gentleman  is  Dr.  John  Cochran,  well  known  to  all  the  faculty.  The 
place  for  which  he  is  well  fitted,  and  which  would  be  most  agreeable 
to  him,  is  Surgeon  General  of  the  middle  department ;  in  this  line  he 
served  all  the  last  war  in  the  British  service,  and  has  distinguished 
himself  this  winter,  particularly  in  his  attention  to  the  smallpox 
patients  and  the  wounded." 

It  was  in  fulfilment  of  this  wish  of  Washington's  that 
his  appointment  was  made.  He  succeeded  Shippen  in 
1 78 1  as  director-general  and  physician-in-chief  of  the 
hospital.  After  the  war  he  settled  in  New  York,  where 
he  died  in  1807. 

Dr.  James  Craik  was  a  Scotchman,  who  had  received 
his  medical  education  in  his  native  land.  He  came  to 
Virginia  and  served  with  Washington  on  Braddock's 
expedition.  He  probably  sustained  as  intimate  personal 
relations  with  Washington  as  any  of  his  contemporaries. 
Washington  in  his  will  termed  him  "  My  compatriot  in 

"  Thacher,  American  Medical   Biography. 


276  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

arms,  my  old  and  intimate  friend."  He  likewise  owed  his 
appointment  largely  to  the  influence  exerted  by  Wash- 
ington on  his  behalf.  He  served  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  War  for  Independence,  being  director-general  of 
the  hospital  at  Yorktown  at  the  time  of  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis.  After  the  war  he  settled  in  practice  in  Mary- 
land, but  at  Washington's  solicitation  he  removed  to 
Mount  Vernon.  In  1798,  when  war  with  France  was 
threatening,  Washington  appointed  him  chief  of  the  medi- 
cal department  of  the  army.  He  attended  Washington 
in  his  last  illness.  He  died  February  6,  18 14,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  eighty-four  years. 

Dr.  Cutter  was  born  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Maine 
in  1734.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1752,  and  then 
studied  medicine  under  Dr.  Clement  Jackson,  of  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire.  In  1755  he  became  surgeon 
to  Roger's  Rangers,  which  was  a  body  of  frontier  troops 
engaged  in  the  French-English  War.  In  1758  he  was 
surgeon  to  the  New  Hampshire  troops  which  partici- 
pated in  the  capture  of  Louisburg  from  the  French.  On 
his  return  he  built  up  an  extensive  practice  at  Louisburg. 
On  receiving  his  appointment  he  assumed  charge  of  the 
hospital  at  Fishkill  on  the  Hudson.  After  the  war  he 
resumed  his  practice,  was  one  of  the  founders  and  for 
a  long  time  president  of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical 
Society.    He  died  in  1819,  aged  eighty-five  years. 

As  we  have  already  stated,  after  the  siege  of  Boston 
was  ended  hostile  operations  were  transferred  to  other 
localities,  especially  to  the  northern  portion  of  the  State 
of  New  York.  In  July,  1776,  a  hospital  was  established 
in  the  city  of  Albany  for  the  reception  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  of  the  American  army.  Dr.  Thacher  was  as- 
signed to  service  at  this  hospital,  and  has  left  us  a  most 
interesting  account  of  various  incidents  which  occurred 


IX    THE    UNITED    STATES.  277 

during  his  tour  of  duty.  The  hospital  was  located  in  a 
building  which  had  been  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  the 
wars  between  the  English  and  French.  It  had  two  stories, 
with  a  wing  at  either  end,  and  a  piazza  in  front,  and 
could  accommodate  five  hundred  patients.  It  was  pretty 
well  filled  up  after  the  battle  of  Crown  Point  and  Fort 
Ticonderoga.  On  October  24,  1777,  Thacher's  Military 
Journal  contains  the  following  entry : 

"  This  hospital  is  now  crowded  with  ofificers  and  men  from  the 
field  of  battle.  Those  belonging  to  the  British  and  Hessian  troops, 
are  accommodated  in  the  same  hospital  with  our  own  men  and  receive 
equal  care  and  attention.  The  foreigners  are  under  the  care  and 
management  of  their  own  surgeons.  I  have  been  present  at  some  of 
the  capital  operations  and  remarked  that  the  English  perform  with 
skill  and  dexterity,  but  the  Germans,  with  a  few  exceptions,  do  no 
credit  to  their  profession ;  some  of  them  are  the  most  uncouth  and 
clumsy  operators  I  ever  witnessed  and  appear  to  be  destitute  of  all 
sympathy  and  tenderness  towards  the  suffering  patient.  Not  less 
than  one  thousand  wounded  and  sick  are  now  in  this  city ;  the  Dutch 
Church  and  several  private  houses  are  occupied  as  hospitals.  We 
have  about  thirty  surgeons  and  mates,  and  all  are  constantly  em- 
ployed. I  am  obliged  to  devote  the  whole  of  my  time  from  eight 
o'clock  in  the  morning  to  a  late  hour  in  the  evening,  to  the  care  of 
our  patients.  Here  is  a  fine  field  for  professional  improvement. 
Amputating  limbs,  trepaning  fractured  skulls,  and  dressing  the  most 
formidable  wounds,  has  familiarized  my  mind  to  scenes  of  woe.  A 
military  hospital  is  peculiarly  calculated  to  afford  example  for 
profitable  contemplation  and  to  interest  our  sympathy  and  com- 
miseration." 

Other  hospitals  for  the  Continental  troops  during  hos- 
tilities in  this  region  were  established  at  Peekskill  and 
Fishkill  on  the  Hudson.  They  were  well  crowded  at 
several  times  during  their  existence,  as  the  fighting  in 
their  neighborhood  was  on  occasions  very  severe. 

Connecticut  had  a  large  general  military  hospital  at 
Stamford,  in  charge  of  Dr.  Philip  Turner.  Many  of 
those  wounded  in  the  campaigns  in  New  York,  or  who 


278  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

became  sick  from  the  hardships  undergone  during  them, 
were  sent  to  the  Connecticut  hospital  for  treatment.  This 
State  also  very  early  established  a  convalescent  hospital 
for  such  of  her  soldiers  as  might  return  to  their  native 
State  before  fully  recovering  from  their  wounds  or  ill- 
ness. 

In  the  course  of  military  events  in  Pennsylvania  and 
the  neighboring  States  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  in 
Philadelphia  was  used  at  various  times  for  the  reception 
of  the  sick  and  wounded  of  both  the  British  and  Ameri- 
can armies.  According  to  Morton/^  the  first  reference 
to  the  Revolutionary  War  which  occurs  in  the  records  of 
the  hospital  is  on  December  5,  1776,  when  the  Committee 
of  Safety  placed  a  number  of  sick  and  wounded  soldiers 
in  the  wards.  On  January  8,  1777,  a  large  number  of 
wounded  soldiers,  sailors,  and  Hessians  were  admitted. 

When  the  English  forces  occupied  Philadelphia  on 
September  26,  1777,  their  officers  took  forcible  posses- 
sion of  the  hospital  for  the  use  of  their  soldiers,  and  when 
they  evacuated  the  city  they  took  with  them  all  the 
blankets,  bedding,  and  instruments  which  they  could  get 
their  hands  on,  for  which  the  hospital  was  never  repaid. 

In  1778  the  Americans  were  again  in  possession  of  the 
city.  On  July  22  of  that  year  the  managers  entered  into 
an  agreement  with  Dr.  Jonathan  Potts,  Deputy  Director- 
General,  and  Dr.  Thomas  Bond,  Assistant  Director-Gen- 
eral, of  the  medical  department  of  the  Continental  army, 
whereby  the  Elaboratory  (afterwards  known  by  the  name 
of  the  North  House,  and  until  torn  down  in  1896  used 
as  the  receiving  ward)  of  the  hospital  was  turned  over 
to  the  medical  department  for  use  as  a  pharmacy  for 
the  preparation  of  medicines  for  the  army  hospitals. 

^"  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital. 


^^S.///'P 


fA^^-.X^/^^,^ 


'■•ill// 


t/u/y  y^  ■<"^!fiy  '4 


/r/,»m^   -^ 


'  ^:> 


;t.>^  ^/^Z^  M^-'-^ 


^^r^ti^  A^ 


:'r 


("omnicl  (^rammv;  use  m    Hit-  Klalxiratory  of   the  I'lMiiisylvaiiia   ll<is|iilal   li«  Uil-  ^xiij^foiis 

f)f  the  Cf)iiliiicMital  army. 

(From   Miirlciii's  '•  Hislnry  fif  llu-  I't-inisylvaiiia   Hospital.'") 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  279 

On  September  8,  1778,  the  following  entry  is  found 
on  the  minutes  of  the  hospital : 

"  Doctor  Bond,  Jr.,  of  the  Continental  Hospitals  applied  to  the 
Board  for  admission  of  a  large  number  of  convalescent  soldiers, 
under  the  direction  and  management  of  their  physicians  and  surgeons, 
to  which  mode  the  managers  objecting,  and  upon  a  free  conference 
it  was  proposed  to  admit  from  time  to  time  such  of  them  as  having 
passed  the  usual  examination  of  the  attending  physician  and  sitting 
managers,  may  be  deemed  proper  objects;  so  far  as  they  can  be 
accommodated  without  prejudice  to  our  own  patients,  and  they 
being  subject  to  the  rules  and  management  established  in  the  house. 
The  soldiers,  if  admitted,  are  to  be  supplied  with  bedding  and  pro- 
visions, which  can  be  delivered  to  our  steward  by  their  commissaries, 
their  nursing  to  be  paid  for  as  shall  hereafter  be  agreed  upon." 

It  was  not  always  convenient  for  the  managers  to  re- 
ceive the  large  numbers  of  patients  which  the  military 
authorities  wished  them  to  accommodate.  The  prin- 
ciples of  faith  of  many  of  the  managers  forbade  their 
taking  any  active  part  in  the  contest,  and  there  was  a 
great  reluctance  on  the  part  of  some  of  them  to  ap- 
pear in  any  way  to  sympathize  with  those  who  were 
in  arms  against  their  fellow-men,  even  in  a  just  cause. 
Four  of  the  managers, — namely,  Israel  Pemberton,  James 
Pemberton,  Thomas  Wharton,  and  Edward  Pennington, 
had  undergone  exile  to  Virginia  because  of  their  apparent 
lack  of  sympathy  with  the  patriot  cause. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Managers  held  March 
30,  1779,  a  communication  was  read  from  J.  Melcher  re- 
questing accommodation  for  a  number  of  convalescent 
soldiers,  for  whose  reception  "  a  reasonable  rent"  would 
be  paid.    The  minutes  state  that 

"  Samuel  Rhoades,  Edward  Pennington,  Jos.  Swift,  and  Robt. 
Strettell  Jones  were  appointed  to  inform  him,  that  no  part  of  this 
house  can  be  conveniently  spared  for  the  purpose  he  requires,  and 
that  we  had  reason  given  us  to  expect,  when  we  accommodated  the 
doctors  of  the  Continental  Army,  with  our  laboratory,  tliat  they 


28o  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

would  secure  us  against  being  further  incommoded;  and  to  use 
such  other  arguments  as  may  occur  to  them,  to  convince  him  of  the 
inexpediency  and  impropriety  of  his  request,  which  if  he  does  not 
decline,  they  are  to  apply  to  the  General,  and  such  others  in  power 
as  may  be  proper  to  prevent  the  soldiers  being  sent  there." 

However,  at  another  meeting,  April  i,  1779,  Dr.  Bond 
appeared  before  the  board  and  submitted  another  request 
to  the  same  purport,  as  follows : 

"  '  Doctor  Bond,  Jr.,  requests  the  managers  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital  would  receive  a  number  of  convalescent  patients  from  the 
general  hospital  into  theirs,  as  the  Bettering  House  is  exceeding 
crowded,  and  the  prescribing  surgeons  of  the  military  hospitals  has 
pointed  their  house  as  the  most  proper  for  their  purpose;  they  and 
Dr.  Bond  agree  that  they  shall  be  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Story  as 
Steward,  but  that  a  military  surgeon  will  prescribe  to  them ;  that 
Doctor  Bond  will  be  in  town,  and  hereby  engages  to  do  everything 
in  his  power  to  restrain  the  Soldiery,  and  prevent  their  committing 
damages  and  behaving  irregularly,  and  the  said  Bond  further 
promises  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  remove  them  totally  from  thence 
in  six  weeks.    The  lower  ward  and  garret  only  will  suffice.' 

"  Which  the  managers  taking  into  consideration  agree  to  receive 
such  convalescents  as  having  passed  the  usual  examination  of  the 
attending  physicians  and  sitting  managers  may  be  deemed  proper 
objects,  so  far  as  they  can  be  accommodated  in  the  lower  ward  and 
long  garret,  under  the  care  of  their  own  physicians  and  surgeons, 
but  subject  to  the  rules  and  government  established  in  the  hospital. 
The  soldiers  upon  admission  are  to  be  supplied  free  of  any  expense 
to  the  Institution,  with  bedding,  provisions,  firewood  and  all  other 
necessities — their  victuals  to  be  cooked  by  some  person  appointed 
by  Dr.  Bond  or  his  agents  for  that  service,  in  the  wash-house,  and 
that  a  reasonable  compensation  be  allowed  for  the  use  of  the  house. 
The  managers  duly  considering  the  trust  reposed  in  them,  apprehend 
they  cannot  receive  patients  upon  other  terms,  no  persons  afflicted 
with  any  infectious  distemper,  can  on  any  account  be  admitted,  and 
they  are  rather  induced  to  acquiesce  in  this  proposal  from  Dr.  Bond's 
engaging  '  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  remove  them  in  six  weeks.' " 

On  June  16,  1779, 

"  Dr.  Bond,  Jr.,  waited  upon  the  Board,  and  returned  thanks  for 
the  use  of  the  house  for  the  convalescents  of  the  military  hospital 
and  expressed  his  desire  of  paying  for  the  same.     The  managers 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  281 

leave  it  to  the  doctor's  generosity  to  make  such  compensation  for  the 
benefit,  as  he  may  deem  adequate." 

In  July,   1782,  Dr.  Bond  desired  to  arrange  for  the 

admission  to  the  hospital  of  a  number  of  Continental 

soldiers,  and  also  a  number  of  British  prisoners,  who 

were  sick  in  the  gaol.     As  among  the  latter  there  were 

cases  of  contagious  disease,  the  board  refused  to  admit 

any  suffering  from  such  a  disorder.    Dr.  Bond  "  insisted 

that  all  the  sick  must  be  admitted  or  none."     Finally  his 

proposal  was  absolutely  rejected,  as  follows: 

"  The  board  having  maturely  considered  Dr.  Bond's  proposals  are 
of  opinion  they  are  totally  inadmissible,  being  in  direct  repugnance 
to  the  rules  of  the  institution." 

In  1783  the  Hospital  again  received  a  large  number 
of  sick  Continental  soldiers  as  pay  patients. 

Christopher  Marshall,  of  Philadelphia,  a  well-known 
druggist  and  much  respected  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  of  that  city  until  he  was  cut  off  by  them  because 
of  the  active  part  he  took  as  a  patriot  in  the  struggle 
with  Great  Britain,  was  appointed  by  the  Council  of 
Safety  of  Philadelphia  to  look  after  the  needs  of  such 
sick  and  wounded  as  might  be  brought  to  that  city.  In 
his  Diary  kept  at  that  time  he  has  left  us  many  glimpses 
of  his  active  work  in  their  behalf.  The  first  time  any 
large  number  of  them  was  brought  to  Philadelphia  was 
in  December,  1776.  He  provided  for  most  of  them  in 
the  Bettering  House,  as  the  Almshouse  was  then  called. 

From  an  entry  in  his  Diary  ^^  for  January  14,  1777, 
it  would  appear  that  there  was  occasionally  a  little  fric- 
tion between  the  civilians  who  were  engaged  in  looking 
after  the  wants  of  the  sick  and  wounded  and  the  medical 
officers  of  the  army.     He  writes, — 

"Edited  by  William  Duane,  Philadelphia,  1839. 


282  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

"  A  number  of  sick  soldiers  coming  in.  Visited  to-day  by  Dr. 
Shippen,  Jr.,  who  being  chief  physician  for  the  army  here,  proposed 
the  taking  of  the  sick  soldiers  from  the  sundry  houses  in  this  city, 
where  they  are  now  placed,  into  the  House  of  Employment  to-mor- 
row. This  proposal  I  communicated  to  the  Council  of  Safety,  (who 
had  requested  me  to  take  charge  of  the  sick  soldiers  about  a  month 
past,)  in  order  for  their  determination,  but  received  no  answer  this 
evening,  as  they  were  very  busy. 

"  On  the  17th  of  January  he  writes  that  the  council  sent  '  for 
answer  to  us  that  we  should  proceed  in  our  appointment  as  before, 
without  paying  any  regard  to  Wm.  Shippen's  notices,  etc.,  upon 
which  we  resumed  our  former  care  and  regard  to  the  sick  soldiers 
and  prisoners.' " 

During  the  summer  of  i  Jjd  army  hospitals  were  estab- 
Hshed  at  Amboy,  Ehzabethtown,  Fort  Lee,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Trenton,  and  Newark. 

Wickes  "  copies  the  following  return  from  "  American 

Archives :" 

"Amboy,  Nov  i,  1776. 
"  Dear  Sir  : — Enclosed  is  a  return  of  the  sick  in  my  hospital. 
Besides  these  there  are  in  each  regiment  a  number  called  sick,  that 
are  not  proper  subjects  for  the  hospital,  and  under  the  care  of  regi- 
mental surgeons,  though  there  are  no  regimental  hospitals.  This 
will  account  for  the  difference  between  the  no.  of  sick  in  Col. 
Griffins  return  and  mine. 

"  Your  obt.  Serv't, 
"  To  Richard  Peters.  William  Shippen,  D.  H.,  &c." 

A  return  of  the  sick  in  the  hospitals  of  the  Flying 
Camp  and  Jersey  militia : 

"  At  Amboy. — Two  Hospitals — Sick  90 ;    wounded  7 ;    Total  97. 

"  At  Ehzabethtown. — Sick,  54 ;  wounded,  3  ;  sick  from  Canada, 
25 ;    Total,  82. 

"  At  Fort  Lee. — Sick  of  our  own,  "j^, ;  wounded,  9;  distressed  New 
England  troops,  19;    total  93.  (  ?) 

"Brunswick. — Sick  10;  Total  10. 

"  Trenton.— Sick  56 ;   do,  56. 

"  Amount  of  whole,  308." 


History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey,  p.  64. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  283 

Shippen  adds  that  he 

"  Has  not  taken  charge  of  near  2,000,  that  are  scattered  up  and 
down  the  country  in  cold  barns,  and  who  suffer  exceedingly  for  want 
of  comfortable  apartments,  because  Dr.  Morgan  does  not  understand 
the  meaning  of  the  Hon.  Congress,  in  their  late  resolve,  and  believing 
yet  they  are  to  be  under  his  direction,  although  they  are  on  this 
side  of  the  Hudson  River.  He  is  now  gone  over  to  take  Gen. 
Washington's  opinion.  As  soon  as  I  receive  the  General's  orders  on 
the  subject,  I  shall  exert  my  best  abilities,  etc." 
i  ^ 

Washington  was  a  thorough  believer  in  inoculating 
the  troops  in  order  to  prevent  an  outbreak  of  smallpox 
among  them. 

In  the  spring  of  1776  he  caused  Mrs.  Washington  to 
undergo  inoculation  while  she  was  staying  in  Philadel- 
phia, as  he  was  fearful  lest  she  might  in  some  of  her 
frequent  visits  to  the  army  contract  smallpox. 

In  1776,  while  the  army  was  undergoing  a  season  of 
comfortable  repose  at  Morristown,  New  Jersey,  he  had 
a  number  of  houses  in  the  neighborhood  fitted  up  as  in- 
oculation hospitals,  and  caused  a  general  inoculation,  not 
only  of  the  troops,  but  also  of  the  people  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  camp.  The  Rev.  Jacob  Green  and  the  other  clerg}' 
of  Morristown  lent  him  most  important  aid  in  this  work. 

"  They  arranged  hospitals  and  dictated  every  plan  with  a  preci- 
sion and  positiveness  that  was  not  to  be  disobeyed  by  their  parish- 
ioners, and  such  was  the  weight  of  this  authority  that  very  few  dis- 
regarded it,  and  that  few  of  them  died  of  the  foul  disease." 

The  Hanover  church  was  used  as  a  hospital  for  such 
as  had  contracted  smallpox  in  the  natural  way,  and 
Washington  Irving  says  that  almost  all  of  this  class  of 
patients  died,  whereas  but  few  of  those  inoculated  failed 
to  recover  completely. 

On  February  5,  1777,  Washington  wrote  to  Congress 
from  Morristown,  that 


284  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

"  The  small  pox  has  made  such  head  in  every  quarter  that  I  find 
it  impossible  to  keep  it  from  spreading  through  the  whole  army  in  the 
natural  way.  I  have  therefore  determined  not  only  to  inoculate  the 
troops  now  here  that  have  not  had  it,  but  shall  order  Dr.  Shippen  to 
inoculate  the  recruits  as  fast  as  they  come  to  Philadelphia.  They 
will  lose  no  time  because  they  will  go  through  the  disease  while  their 
clothing,  arms  and  accoutrements  are  getting  ready."  " 

After  the  battles  of  Brandywine  and  Red  Bank  and 
the  numerous  minor  engagements  which  took  place  in 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  at  that  time,  a  general  hos- 
pital was  established  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  of  which 
Dr.  James  Tilton,  who  later  during  the  war  of  181 2  was 
physician  and  surgeon-general  to  the  United  States  army, 
was  in  charge.  He  tells  us^*^  how  the  promiscuous  mix- 
ing of  a  large  number  of  sick  with  the  wounded  men  in 
this  hospital  resulted  in  an  outbreak  of  jail  fever,  to  which 
he  himself  fell  a  victim,  and  only  recovered  after  a  severe 
illness. 

Twice  during  the  Revolution  the  little  Moravian  vil- 
lage of  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  was  occupied  by  the 
sick  and  wounded  of  the  Continental  army.  My  informa- 
tion on  this  subject  is  practically  entirely  derived  from 
a  most  interesting  article  by  Mr.  Jordan,  of  the  Histori- 
cal Society  of  Pennsylvania,  which  appeared  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania Magazine  of  History  and  Biography  for  July, 
1896. 

It  is  to  Mr.  Jordan  that  we  owe  the  most  graphic  de- 
scription of  a  Revolutionary  army  hospital  in  our  pos- 
session, and  the  mass  of  information  he  has  sifted  out 
so  carefully  is  of  inestimable  value. 

The  first  occupancy  was  from  December,  1776,  to 
April,    1777,   and  occurred   when   Cornwallis-,   after  de- 

"  Sparks's  Life  of  Washington. 

"  Tilton,  Observations  on  Military  Hospitals. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  285 

feating  General  Washington  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island, 
had  followed  up  his  victory  by  pursuing  him  out  of  New 
Jersey.  There  were  over  one  thousand  sick  and  wounded 
Americans  at  Morristown,  New  Jersey,  and  it  was  de- 
cided that  Bethlehem  was  the  most  available  place  of 
safety  for  them.  The  Moravians  were  a  peaceful  sect, 
and  great  was  the  disturbance  among  them  when  Dr. 
Cornelius  Baldwin,  of  the  New  Jersey  Line,  arrived  on 
December  3,  1776,  with  the  following  letter  from  Dr. 
Warren : 

"  To  THE  COM^IITTEE  OF  THE  TOWN  OF  BeTHLEHEM,  OR  OTHERS  WHOM 
IT  MAY  CONCERN. 

"Gentlemen  : — According  to  his  excellency,  General  Washing- 
ton's orders  the  General  Hospital  of  the  army  is  removed  to  Bethle- 
hem, and  you  will  do  the  greatest  act  of  humanity  by  immediately 
providing  proper  buildings  for  their  reception,  the  largest  and  most 
capacious  will  be  the  most  convenient.  I  doubt  not,  gentlemen,  but 
you  will  act  upon  this  occasion  as  becomes  men  and  Christians. 
Doctor  Baldwin,  the  gentleman  who  waits  upon  you  with  this,  is  sent 
upon  the  business  of  providing  proper  accommodations  for  the  sick ; 
begging  therefore  that  j-ou  afford  him  all  possible  assistance,  I  am 
gentlemen, 

"  Your  most  obedient  humble  servant, 
"John  Warren, 
"  Gen'l.  Hospital  Surg'n.  and  P.  T.  Director." 

In  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day  Dr.  William  Shippen 
and  Dr.  Warren  also  arrived,  and  made  the  necessary 
arrangements  for  the  reception  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
sick  soldiers. 

Dr.  Shippen  is  quoted  as  saying  that  all  the  patients 
at  Morristown  had  been  ordered  to  Bethlehem,  but  since 
"  we  had  shown  such  a  willingness  to  provide  for  them, 
he  would  now  arrange  to  quarter  the  greater  number  at 
Easton  and  Allentown." 

The  sick  began  arriving  at  once  and  in  the  most  piti- 
able condition,   after   their   long  midwinter   journey   in 


286  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

rough-riding  wagons.  Quartermaster  and  commissary 
supplies  were  not  at  hand  for  two  or  three  days  subse- 
quent to  this  influx  into  the  town,  and  the  Moravians 
generously  provided  for  the  wants  of  the  suffering.  The 
Single  Brethren  vacated  their  quarters  in  order  to  give  the 
soldiers  room.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Ettwein,  of  the  Brother- 
hood, should  always  be  held  in  loving  remembrance  by 
Americans  for  the  unselfishness  and  devoted  zeal  with 
which  he  rendered  his  services  to  the  sick  men.  He 
visited  the  sick  twice  a  week,  bringing  them  all  the 
comfort  he  could  in  their  unfortunate  condition.  Mr. 
Ettwein  records  that  there  were  sixty-two  deaths  in  the 
hospital  during  the  month  of  December,  most  of  them 
attributable  to  the  exposure  incident  to  the  removal  of 
the  general  hospital  from  Morristown.  Throughout  this 
occupancy  of  the  town  he  places  the  total  number  of 
deaths  at  one  hundred  and  ten. 

In  February,  1777,  smallpox  was  brought  into  the 
settlement  by  some  soldiers,  but  the  prompt  inoculation 
of  forty  of  the  men  and  some  children  saved  the  place 
from  an  epidemic.  On  the  27th  of  March  the  hospital 
was  ordered  transferred  to  Philadelphia,  and  the  order 
was  obeyed  as  quickly  as  possible,  leaving  the  gentle 
Moravians  to  resume  their  routine,  not  to  say  humdrum 
mode  of  existence,  from  which  they  had  been  so  rudely 
awakened.  There  were,  however,  some  among  the  sol- 
diers too  sick  to  be  removed  with  the  rest,  among  them 
Colonel  Isaac  Reed,  of  the  Fourth  Virginia  Regiment, 
who  was  sent  to  Philadelphia  on  June  22,  1777,  and  died 
in  that  city  a  month  later,  and  Dr.  John  Duffield,  who 
did  not  leave  until  July  7,  and  is  recorded  as  "  the  last 
of  the  sick  attached  to  the  hospital  here." 

After  the  battle  of  Brandywine,  when  it  became  neces- 
sary  for  the  Americans   to   abandon   Philadelphia,    the 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  287 

second  occupation  of  Bethlehem  as  a  Continental  army- 
hospital  occurred.  Dr.  Shippen  sent  Dr.  Hall  Jackson 
to  Bethlehem,  where  he  arrived  on  Tuesday,  September 
19,  1777,  bearing  the  following  letter  to  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Ettwein : 

"  My  Dear  Sir  :  It  gives  me  pain  to  be  obliged  by  order  of  Con- 
gress to  send  my  sick  and  wounded  to  your  peaceable  village,  but 
so  it  is.  Your  large  buildings  must  be  appropriated  to  their  use.  We 
will  want  room  for  two  thousand  at  Bethlehem,  Easton,  Northamp- 
ton, etc.,  and  you  may  expect  them  Saturday  or  Sunday.  I  send 
Dr.  Jackson  before  them,  that  you  may  have  time  to  order  your 
affairs  in  the  best  manner.  These  are  dreadful  times,  consequences 
of  unnatural  wars.  I  am  truly  concerned  for  your  society  and  wish 
sincerely  this  stroke  could  be  averted,  but  'tis  impossible.  I  beg 
Mr.  Hasse's  assistance.  Love  and  compliments  from,  my  d'r  sir, 
"  Your  affectionate  humble  servant, 

"  William  Shippen,  D.  G." 

Mr.  Jordan  quotes  the  Rev.  Mr.  Ettwein  as  follows : 

"  Seeing  ourselves  under  the  necessity  of  relieving  the  distress 
of  the  country,  we  gave  orders  for  the  vacation  of  the  Single 
Brethren's  House,  and  its  inmates  to  be  distributed  in  Nazareth  and 
adjacent  settlements.  On  Saturday  we  began  to  realize  the  extent 
of  the  panic  that  had  stricken  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital,  as 
crowds  of  civilians  as  well  as  men  in  military  life,  began  to  enter 
the  town  in  the  character  of  fugitives." 

Among  the  wounded  were  Generals  Lafayette  and 
Woodford.  In  a  few  days  the  buildings  appropriated 
for  hospital  use  were  filled,  and  tents  had  to  be  used  for 
those  for  whom  room  could  not  otherwise  be  found.  The 
army  surgeons  wished  to  take  for  their  purposes  either 
the  "  Sisters'  "  or  the  "  Widows'  House,"  but  the  Rev, 
Mr.  Ettwein  succeeded  in  having  them  exempted  from 
seizure. 

The  following  proclamation  was  issued  by  the  members 
of  Congress,  who  were  then  among  the  fugitives  in  Beth- 
lehem : 


288  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

"  Bethlehem,  Sept.  22nd,  1777. 
"  Having  here  observed  a  diligent  attention  to  the  sick  and 
wounded,  and  a  benevolent  desire  to  make  the  necessary  provision 
for  the  relief  of  the  distressed  as  far  as  the  power  of  the  brethren 
enables  them,  we  desire  that  all  continental  officers  may  refrain  from 
disturbing  the  persons  or  property  of  the  Moravians  in  Bethlehem ; 
and  particularly,  that  they  do  not  disturb  or  molest  the  houses  where 
the  women  are  assembled. 

"  Given  under  our  hands  at  the  place  and  time  above  mentioned. 
"John  Hancock.  William  Duer. 

Samuel  Adams.  Cornelius  Harnett. 

James  Duane.  Richard  Henry  Lee. 

Nathan  Crownson.  Henry  Laurens. 

Nathaniel  Folsom.  Benjamin   Harrison. 

Richard  Law.  Joseph  Jones. 

Eliphalet  Dyer.  John  Adams. 

Henry  March  ant.  William  Williams. 

"  Delegates  to  Congress." 

On  October  7,  1777,  the  wounded  from  the  battle- 
field of  Germantown  began  to  arrive,  and  by  the  226. 
there  were  four  hundred  patients  in  the  hospital  and 
fifty  in  tents,  and  the  doctors  announced  that  they  could 
accommodate  no  more. 

But  on  the  28th  of  October  Hospital  Commissary  Hugh 
James  arrived  with  orders  from  Dr.  Rush  to  provide 
immediately  for  the  reception  of  one  hundred  more  pa- 
tients. To  fulfil  this  order  they  were  obliged  to  put  up 
a  number  of  frame  buildings  for  the  doctors,  attendants, 
and  guard,  so  that  the  sick  might  be  placed  in  the  more 
substantial  houses. 

In  December  the  hospital  became  terribly  overcrowded, 
and  remained  so  into  the  spring.  The  ventilation  was 
poor  and  the  place  became  filthy,  and  putrid  fever  claimed 
many  victims.  There  were  seven  hundred  patients 
crowded  at  one  time  into  the  house  of  the  Single  Breth- 
ren, which  had  been  previously  considered  overcrowded 
by  four  hundred  patients.      One  reason  for  this  over- 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  289 

crowding  is  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Shippen  in  a  letter  to 
Congress,  wherein  he  states  that  many  soldiers  who  were 
entirely  recovered  were  obliged  to  remain  in  Bethlehem 
for  want  of  suitable  clothing  in  which  to  return  to  the 
army. 

Mr.  Jordan  thinks  that  the  number  of  deaths  in  the 
Bethlehem  hospital  during  this  second  occupation  may  be 
computed  at  upward  of  five  hundred.  Among  those  who 
died  were  Dr.  Joseph  Harrison,  Dr.  Aquila  Wilmot,  and 
Hospital  Stev/ard  Robert  Gillespie,  of  the  hospital  staff. 
The  two  latter  were  buried  in  the  "  Strangers'  Row"  of 
the  Moravian  cemetery.  The  reasons  for  this  high  rate  of 
mortality  are  not  far  to  seek.  Mr.  Jordan  gives  us  the 
statements  of  three  of  the  surgeons  connected  with  the 
hospital, — namely,  Drs.  William  Smith,  William  Brown, 
and  Moses  Scott. 

Dr.  Smith  states, — 

"  That  he  had  known  from  four  to  five  patients  die  on  the  same 
straw  before  it  was  changed,  and  that  many  of  them  had  been  ad- 
mitted only  for  slight  disorders.  Of  the  eleven  junior  surgeons  and 
mates,  ten  took  the  infection,  most  of  them  dangerously  so,  and  one, 
Dr.  Joseph  Harrison,  had  died,  and  of  the  three  hospital  stewards, 
two  had  died  and  the  third  narrowly  escaped.  Owing  to  the  crowded 
wards,  and  the  want  of  almost  every  necessary,  it  was  impossible  to 
prevent  an  infection,  and  that  the  sufferings  of  the  sick  could  not  be 
attributed  to  negligence  or  inattention  of  the  surgeons  and  physi- 
cians." 

Dr.  William  Brown  says, — 

"  That  when  the  hospital  was  opened  it  was  many  weeks  without 
so  necessary  articles  as  brooms,  and  that  at  last  he  was  obliged  to 
have  them  taken  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  town." 

Lastly,  Dr.  Moses  Scott  writes  that  during  the  three 
months  which  he  spent  in  the  hospital 

"  Between  eight  and  nine  hundred  patients  were  admitted,  thirty- 
four  of  whom  died,  and  that  owing  to  the  moving  of  the  hospitals 

19 


290  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

in  the  beginning,  it  was  almost  impossible  to  make  exact  returns  of 
the  sick  and  wounded.  Upon  computation,  allowing  four  feet  for 
each  patient,  we  concluded  that  the  house  would  hold  three  hundred 
and  sixty  without  crowding." 

Dr.  James  Tilton^"  on  his  way  home  from  the  hos- 
pital at  Princeton  on  sick-leave  stopped  for  a  short  time 
in  Bethlehem,  and  he  has  left  us  the  minutes  of  an  in- 
teresting conversation  which  took  place  between  himself 
and  several  of  the  surgeons  of  the  Bethlehem  hospital, 
as  follows : 

"  During  my  stay,  it  was  natural  to  enquire  into  the  state  of  their 
hospital.  The  method  I  took  was  to  propose  a  competition,  not  whose 
hospital  had  done  the  most  good  but  whose  hospital  had  done  the 
most  mischief.  I  was  requested  to  give  an  account  of  Princeton 
hospital.  I  stated  with  all  the  exaggeration  I  could  with  truth,  not 
only  affecting  mortality  among  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers,  but 
that  the  orderly  men,  nurses  and  other  attendants  on  the  hospital 
were  liable  to  the  infection,  that  I  had  myself  narrowly  escaped 
death ;  and  that  five  other  surgeons  and  males  had  afterwards  been 
seized.  I  was  answered,  that  the  malignity  and  mortality  of  Prince- 
ton Hospital  bore  no  comparison  with  theirs ;  that  at  Bethlehem  not 
an  orderly  man  or  nurse  escaped,  and  but  few  of  the  surgeons ;  that 
one  surgeon,  Jos.  Harrison,  a  fine  young  fellow,  distinguished  for  his 
assiduity,  had  died,  and  to  give  me  some  idea  of  the  mortality  of  this 
hospital,  one  of  the  surgeons  asked  me  if  I  were  acquainted  with  that 
fine  volunteer  regiment  of  Virginia,  commanded,  I  think,  by  Col. 
Gibson.  I  answered  I  knew  it  only  by  reputation.  He  then  went  on 
to  say  that  forty  of  that  regiment  had  come  to  that  hospital,  and 
then  asked  me  how  many  I  supposed  would  ever  join  the  regiment? 
I  guessed  a  third  or  the  fourth  part.  He  declared  solemnly  that  not 
three  would  ever  return,  that  one  man  had  joined  his  regiment; 
that  another  was  convalescent  and  might  possibly  recover,  but  that 
the  only  remaining  one  besides,  was  in  the  last  stage  of  the  colliqua- 
tive flux  and  must  soon  die.  I  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  the  hos- 
pital at  Bethlehem  had  been  more  fatal  than  that  at  Princeton." 

Dr.  Shippen  summed  up  the  causes  of  the  mortality 
at  Bethlehem  to  be,  in  his  opinion, 

"  Observations  on  Military  Hospitals. 


'^  (^ 


DK.    jAMIiS    TiLTON. 


\ 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  291 

"  The  want  of  clothing  and  covering  necessary  to  keep  the  soldiers 
clean  and  warm,  articles  at  that  time  not  procurable  in  the  country; 
partly  from  an  army  being  composed  of  raw  men,  unused  to  camp 
life  and  undisciplined;  exposed  to  great  hardships,  and  from  the 
sick  and  wounded  being  removed  great  distances  in  open  wagons." 

In  the  beginning  of  1778  the  authorities  began  the 
removal  of  the  hospital,  and  by  the  8th  of  April  the 
final  order  for  its  closure  was  promulgated.  The  fever 
had  wrought  great  mischief  to  the  poor  Moravians,  seven 
of  the  Single  Brethren  having  died  during  the  occupancy 
of  their  house,  also  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Ettwein. 

Mr.  Jordan  quotes  the  report  of  General  Lachlan  Mc- 
intosh, who  superintended  the  removal  of  the  hospital, 
to  General  Washington.  This  is  the  only  report  of  the 
hospital  found  in  the  archives  at  Washington.  It  states 
that  from  January  i  to  April  12,  1778, 

"  Eighty-one  soldiers  died,  twenty-five  deserted,  one  hundred  and 
twenty-two  were  discharged  and  sent  to  the  army;  eleven  were  at 
the  shoe  factory  [in  Allentown],  two  were  attending  on  sick  and 
wounded  officers,  and  all  the  rest  removed  from  the  hospital." 

At  Lititz,  another  Moravian  village,  in  Lancaster 
County,  Pennsylvania,  a  Continental  army  hospital  was 
established  and  maintained  from  December,  1777,  until 
August,  1778. 

Mr.  Jordan's  account  of  it  is  fully  as  interesting  as  is 
his  account  of  the  hospital  at  Bethlehem. 

Dr.  Samuel  Kennedy  arrived  at  Lititz  on  December 
14,  1777,  with  a  written  order  from  General  Washington 
for  the  inhabitants  to  provide  accommodations  for  two 
hundred  and  fifty  sick  and  wounded  soldiers.  It  was 
again  the  Single  Brethren  upon  whom  the  blow  fell  most 
heavily.  They  were  again  obliged  to  vacate  their  house 
in  spite  of  many  expostulations  by  Bishop  Hehl. 

On  December  19  eighty  sick  arrived,  and  the  follow- 


292 


THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 


ing  day  fifteen  wagon-loads  more  were  received.  There 
were  but  two  doctors  attached  to  the  hospital.  Putrid 
fever  broke  out  in  a  few  days  and  both  the  doctors  were 
prostrated  with  it,  and  Dr.  Adolph  Meyer,  the  Mora- 
vians' physician,  had  to  fill  their  places  until  relieved, 
ten  days  later,  "  by  a  doctor  who  was  a  German  from 
Saxony." 

There  were  seven  deaths  in  ten  days  from  the  fever, 
a  pretty  high  mortality,  and  in  January,  1778,  it  became 
epidemic,  and  five  Moravians,  who  were  serving  as  volun- 
teer nurses,  and  the  assistant  pastor  of  the  congregation, 
the  Rev.  John  J.  Schmick,  died  of  it. 

In  January  Dr.  William  Brown,  one  of  the  most  capa- 
ble medical  officers  in  the  Continental  army  and  author 
of  the  first  American  pharmacopoeia,  was  placed  in  charge 
of  all  the  Continental  army  hospitals  in  Lititz  and  its 
vicinity,  and  Dr.  Francis  Allison,  Jr.,  was  associated  with 
him. 

In  March,  1778,  the  inhabitants,  to  their  great  con- 
sternation, heard  that  Dr.  Shippen  contemplated  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  general  hospital  at  Lititz.  The  Rev. 
Mr.  Ettwein  wrote  to  General  Washington  imploring  him 
to  countermand  any  order  to  that  effect  that  might  have 
been  issued. 

Washington  wrote  to  him  on  March  28,  from  Valley 
Forge,  to  the  following  effect : 

"  Sir — I  have  received  your  letter  of  25th,  by  Mr.  Hasse,  setting 
forth  the  injury  that  will  be  done  to  the  inhabitants  of  Lititz  by 
establishing  a  general  hospital  there — it  is  needless  to  explain  how 
essential  an  establishment  of  this  kind  is  to  the  welfare  of  the  army, 
and  you  must  be  sensible  that  it  cannot  be  made  anywhere  without 
occasioning  inconvenience  to  some  set  of  people  or  other.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  ever  my  wish  and  aim  that  the  public  good  be 
effected  with  as  little  sacrifice  as  possible  of  individual  interests,  and 
I  would  by  no  means  sanction  any  burdens  on  the  people  in  whose 
favor  you  remonstrate,  which  the  public  service  does  not  require. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  293 

The  arrangement  and  distribution  of  the  hospitals  depends  entirely 
on  Dr.  Shippen,  and  1  am  persuaded  that  he  will  not  exert  the 
authority  vested  in  him  unnecessarily  to  your  prejudice.  It  would 
be  proper,  however,  to  represent  to  him,  the  circumstances  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Litiz,  and  you  may,  if  you  choose  it,  communicate  the 
contents  of  this  letter  to  him. 

"  I  am  sir, 

"  Your  most  obed't  ser't, 

"  Geo.  Washington." 

Bishop  Hehl  wrote  to  Dr.  Shippen  about  the  matter, 
and  was  answered  as  follows : 

"  Sir — I  am  so  much  affected  at  the  very  thoughts  of  distress- 
ing a  society  I  have  so  great  an  esteem  for,  that  you  may  depend 
upon  it  I  will  not  put  into  execution  the  proposal  of  removing  the 
inhabitants  of  Lititz,  unless  cruel  necessity  urges,  which  at  present 
I  don't  imagine  will  be  the  case.  If  we  should  fix  the  General  Hos- 
pital and  take  more  room  in  your  village,  it  shall  be  done  in  a 
manner  the  least  distressing  and  disagreeable  to  your  flock  that 
is  possible,  of  which  I  will  consult  you.  I  am  sir,  your  and  the 
congregation's  affectionate  and  very  humble  servant, 

"  W.  Shippen. 

"  Manheim,  9  April,  1778." 

However,  the  necessity  for  removing  the  inhabitants 
of  Lititz  out  of  their  homes  never  arose. 

General  Mcintosh  reported  of  this  hospital,  that  from 
February  i  to  April  20,  1778, 

'■  264  wounded  and  sick  soldiers  have  been  admitted  to  the  hos- 
pital, that  142  had  been  discharged  and  sent  to  camp ;  83  had  died 
and  deserted,  and  39  were  under  treatment." 

This  report  also  stated, — 

"  The  accounts  of  the  first  doctors  cannot  be  found.  This  is  a 
convenient  and  pleasant  place  for  a  hospital,  and  is  so  near  Lan- 
caster, that  the  same  office  and  surgeons  may  attend  both.  The 
hospitals  at  SchaefFerstown  [Lebanon]  and  Ephrata  should  be  re- 
moved here,  as  both  are  very  inconvenient." 

On  the  2 1  St  day  of  August  the  surgeons  were  ordered 
to  make  preparations  for  the  removal  of  the  patients,  and 


294 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


on  the  28th  they  began  sending-  them  to  Lancaster  and 
Yellow  Springs.  During  the  occupation  of  the  house 
of  the  Single  Brethren  one  hundred  and  twenty  soldiers 
had  died  in  it. 

In  May,  1776,  Congress  passed  resolutions  establishing 
an  army  hospital  in  Virginia,  and  appointing  Dr.  William 
Rickman  physician  and  director-general  of  it.  The  hos- 
pital was  located  in  Williamsburg,  and  it  had  been  at 
first  intended  to  convert  the  College  buildings  to  hospital 
uses,  but  finally  a  building  known  as  "  the  Palace"  was 
taken  for  the  purpose.  The  French  troops  used  the  Col- 
lege later.  Dr.  James  Tilton  was  left  at  Williamsburg 
in  charge  of  the  American  sick  and  wounded  after  the 
surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown,  when  Gen- 
eral Washington  with  his  army  went  north.  The  French 
troops  remained  cantoned  at  the  same  place.  He  writes  ^^ 
of  their  hospital  as  follows : 

"  Being  thus  in  a  French  garrison  I  had  some  opportunity  of 
observing  the  French  practice  and  management  of  their  sick.  In 
passing  the  wards  of  their  hospital,  their  patients  appear  very  neat  and 
clean,  above  all  examples  I  had  ever  seen.  Each  patient  was  accom- 
modated with  everything  necessary  even  to  a  night  cap.  Neverthe- 
less, they  were  not  more  successful  than  we  were.  Even  their 
wounded,  with  all  the  boasted  dexterity  of  the  French  to  aid  them, 
were  no  more  fortunate  than  ours.  I  was  led  to  attribute  their 
failure  principally  to  two  causes.  For  ease  and  convenience,  they 
had  contrived  a  common  necessary  for  their  whole  hospital,  the 
college,  a  large  building  three  stories  high,  by  erecting  a  half  hexa- 
gon, of  common  boards,  reaching  from  the  roof  down  to  a  pit  in  the 
earth.  From  this  perpendicular  conduit  doors  opened  upon  each 
floor  of  the  hospital ;  and  all  manner  of  filth  and  excrementitious 
matters  were  dropped  and  thrown  down  this  common  sewer  into 
the  pit  below.  This  sink  of  nastiness  perfumed  the  whole  house  very 
sensibly  and,  without  doubt,  vitiated  all  the  air  within  the  wards. 
In  the  next  place  their  practice  appeared  to  me  to  be  very  inert. 
When  passing  their  wards  with  the  prescribing  physicians,  I  observed 

"  Observations  on  Military  Hospitals. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  295 

a  great  number  of  their  patients  in  a  languid  and  putrid  condition 
and  asked  occasionally  if  the  bark  would  not  be  proper  in  such  cases? 
The  uniform  answer  was  no,  too  much  inflammation.  And  when 
they  had  attended  my  round  of  prescription  and  saw  me  frequently 
prescribing  the  bark,  in  febrile  cases,  and  even  for  the  wounded,  they 
lifted  up  their  hands  in  astonishment.  Few  or  no  chemical  remedies 
were  employed  by  them.  One  of  their  regimental  surgeons  declared 
that  he  never  used  opium.  Their  hospital  pharmacopeia  consisted 
chiefly  of  ptisans,  decoctions,  and  watery  drinks,  fitted  only  for  in- 
flammatory disorders.  All  these  circumstances  considered,  satisfied 
my  mind  why  their  ample  accommodations  gave  them  no  advantage 
of  us  in  the  result  of  practice.  I  was  the  more  surprised  as  Doctors 
Cost  and  Borgelli  appeared  to  be  men  of  science,  well  qualified  to 
make  research." 

In  1780  the  French  fleet  arrived  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  on  their  mission  of  aid  to  the  Americans.  Dr. 
Craik  was  deputed  by  General  Washington  to  prepare 
hospitals  at  that  point  for  the  proper  reception  of  any 
of  the  French  king's  officers  and  men  who  might  be  in 
need  of  medical  assistance  on  their  arrival  in  this  coun- 
try. General  Washington  furnished  Dr.  Craik  with  the 
following  letter  to  the  governor  of  Rhode  Island : 

"  Headquarters,  Morristown,  May  25,  1780. 
"  Sir  : — Dr.  Craik,  assistant  director  general  of  the  hospitals  in 
our  army,  will  have  the  honour  of  delivering  this  letter  to  your 
excellency.  This  gentleman  comes  to  Providence  to  provide  hos- 
pitals and  such  refreshment  as  may  be  wanted  in  the  first  instance 
for  the  sick,  which  may  be  on  board  the  fleet  of  His  most  Christian 
Majesty  when  it  arrives.  The  Doctor  will  consult  with  your  excel- 
lency about  the  houses  which  will  be  necessary  and  proper  upon  the 
occasion,  and  on  the  best  mode  of  obtaining  the  refreshn^cnts  which 
he  may  think  it  necessary  to  provide.  He  will  stand  very  materially 
in  need  of  your  good  offices  in  this  interesting  business,  and  in  a 
particular  manner  will  want  the  assistance  of  the  State,  either  to 
advance  him  money  or  their  credit,  for  laying  in  the  requisite  sup- 
plies. This  I  am  persuaded  they  will  most  readily  give  him,  from 
an  earnest  desire  to  afford  every  possible  comfort  and  accommoda- 
tion to  the  sick  of  our  good  and  great  ally,  who  have  the  strongest 
claim  to  our  attention  and  generosity.  Your  excellency  will  be 
pleased  to  have  the  account  of  disbursements  incurred  on  the  occa- 


296  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

sion,  kept  in  a  clear  and  particular  manner,  which  will  be  punctually 
paid  by  Mons.  Carne,  Commissary  at  War  to  his  most  Christian 
Majesty;  or  Mr.  Damour,  his  consul,  in  gold  or  silver,  or  in  bills 
of  exchange  on  France,  on  the  arrival  at  Providence.  One  of  these 
gentlemen  will  be  there  in  a  short  time. 

"  I  have  the  honour  to  be  with  highest  respect  your  excellency's 
most 

"  Obedient  servant 

"  George  Washington. 
"  To  HIS  Excellency 

Governor  Greene." 

The  citizens  of  Providence  objected  most  stronglj;  to 
the  proposition  which  was  first  advanced, — namely,  to 
take  the  College  buildings  in  the  town  for  hospital  pur- 
poses. While  the  matter  was  under  discussion  General 
Heath  addressed  the  following  letter  to  the  governor  of 
the  State,  explaining  the  importance  of  early  action  in 
the  matter : 

"  General  Heath  to  the  Governor  of  Rhode  Island. 

"  Providence,  June  i8th,  1780. 
"  Sir  :  I  was  this  morning  honored  with  yours  of  yesterday. 
Please  accept  my  thanks  for  your  kind  congratulations  and  wishes 
that  my  command  may  be  happy.  I  am  sorry  to  give  your  Excel- 
lency or  the  Honorable  Assembly  any  interruptions  in  your  impor- 
tant deliberations;  but  from  an  anxiety  that  every  preparation  may 
be  made  for  the  reception  of  the  sick  of  our  illustrious  ally,  I  am 
constrained  to  do  it.  Every  exertion  is  in  exercise  to  have  the  hos- 
pital in  readiness,  but  Dr.  Craik  informs  me  that  it  will  be  some 
time  before  the  buildings  he  is  removing  and  repairing  will  be  com- 
pleted. Should  the  fleet  soon  arrive,  unless  some  other  buildings 
are  taken  up  as  a  reserve,  on  such  an  emergency  the  sick  will  suffer, 
and  the  service  receive  injury.  I  find  Dr.  Craik  has  a  high  opinion 
of  the  accommodation  and  situation  of  the  college  in  this  town.  I 
find  that  the  inhabitants  are  much  against  that  seminary's  being 
taken  as  a  hospital  or  infectious  diseases  introduced  among  the  in- 
habitants. Your  Excellency  is  fully  sensible  of  how  much  importance 
it  is  that  hospitals  should  be  provided  and  at  the  same  time  that  it 
should  be  effected  in  a  manner  if  possible  that  will  not  excite  an  idea 
in  the  breasts  of  our  allies,  that  there  is  not  an  hearty  acquiescence  in 
every  measure  adopted  for  their  comfort  and  convenience.  I  have 
been  informed  that  a  committee  has  been  appointed  for  the  purpose 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  297 

of  taking  up  buildings.  Permit  me  to  express  a  wish  that  every  step 
may  be  taken  without  loss  of  time  which  our  allies  can  reasonably 
expect,  or  the  honor  of  our  country  requires. 

"  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  with  the  greatest  respect 

"  Your  Excellency's  most  obedient  servant 

"  W.  Heath. 
"  To  His  Excellency  Governor  Greene. 

"  P.S.  I  am  not  acquainted  with  the  situation  of  the  place  where 
hospitals  are  now  preparing.  I  am  informed  it  has  a  fine  salubrious 
air,  but  from  reports  am  apprehensive  that  it  may  be  annoyed  by  the 
enemy's  shipping  if  left  unprotected  and  a  removal  from  the  place 
easily  prevented  but  with  this  you  are  best  acquainted. 

"W.  H." 

The  protest  of  the  citizens  finally  proved  successful, 
the  Legislature  passing-  the  following  resolution  making 
arrangements  for  the  French  hospital  elsewhere  than  in 
the  College  buildings : 

"  Whereas  his  Excellency  General  Washington  by  his  letter  to  His 
Excellency  the  Governor  on  the  25th  day  of  last  month,  hath  re- 
quested this  state  to  give  their  assistance  to  Dr.  Craik,  assistant 
director  general  of  the  hospitals  of  the  continental  army  who  hath 
in  consequence  of  instruction  from  Gen'l.  Washington  come  into 
this  state  to  provide  hospitals  and  refreshments  for  the  sick  which 
may  be  on  board  His  Most  Christian  Majesty's  fleet  now  expected 
in  this  State,  and  this  Assembly  taking  into  consideration  the  said 
request,  and  earnestly  desiring  to  afford  every  possible  comfort  and 
assistance  to  the  sick  and  distressed  of  the  illustrious  ally  of  the 
United  States.  Do  vote  and  resolve,  that  it  be,  and  hereby  is  recom- 
mended to  Ephraim  Bowen,  Jr.,  Esq.,  deputy  quartermaster  general 
to  cause  the  buildings  on  the  farm  in  Bristol  lately  belonging  to 
Wm.  Vassel  Esq.,  to  be  immediately  put  in  proper  repair  for  the 
said  purpose  and  that  he  cause  such  additional  buildings  to  be 
erected  on  the  said  farm  and  on  the  school  farm  adjoining  thereto, 
as  shall  with  the  buildings  first  mentioned,  be  sufficient  to  contain 
the  numbers  and  answer  the  purposes  pointed  out  in  the  said  instruc- 
tions to  Dr.  Craik.  That  John  J.  Clark,  Jonathan  Arnold,  and  Ben- 
jamin Bourne  Esqs.  be  and  they  hereby  are,  appointed  a  committee 
to  advise  with  the  said  Ephraim  Bowen,  Jr.,  respecting  the  repairs 
necessary  for  the  said  buildings  and  the  most  suitable  places  to 
erect  new  ones ;  and  that  in  case  the  number  of  sick  shall  exceed  the 


298  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

provision  made  for  them,  the  said  committee  advise  the  said  Ephraim 
Bowen,  Jr.,  where  and  what  other  buildings  shall  be  taken  up  for 
their  accommodation  and  comfort,  and  for  the  more  speedily  effecting 
the  said  purposes.  It  is  hereby  recommended  to  the  said  Ephraim 
Bowen,  Jr.,  to  cause  such  barracks  as  may  be  at  Tiverton  and  at  the 
north  end  of  Rhode  Island,  to  be  removed  to  the  said  farms,  and 
also  to  make  use  of  a  large  frame  in  Tiverton  near  Col.  Pardon 
Gray's.  It  is  further  voted  and  resolved,  that  Dr.  Jonathan  Arnold 
and  Dr.  Isaac  Senter  be,  and  they  are  hereby,  appointed  a  committee 
to  advise  with  the  said  Dr.  Craik,  respecting  the  necessary  means 
and  measures  to  be  pursued  to  Prevent  any  contagious  disorders, 
which  may  prevail  amongst  the  said  sick,  from  being  communicated 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  State.  And  for  enabling  the  said  Ephraim 
Bowen,  Jr.,  to  carry  the  aforesaid  purpose  into  execution,  and  to 
supply  the  said  Dr.  Craik  agreeably  to  the  said  request.  It  is  further 
voted  and  resolved  that  he  be,  and  hereby  is,  empowered  to  draw  the 
sum  of  £10.000,  lawful  money,  out  of  the  general  treasury." 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  terrible  privations  under- 
gone by  the  soldiers  in  the  American  army,  but  I  think 
that  one  can  hardly  conceive  the  fearful  scarcity  of 
medical  and  surgical  supplies  with  which  the  medical 
men  of  the  army  had  to  contend. 

Morgan  ^^  details  the  result  of  an  order  issued  on  July 
3,  1776,  requiring  the  regimental  surgeons  to  forward 
a  report  of  the  surgical  supplies  which  they  had  in  their 
possession.  The  surgeons  of  only  fifteen  regiments  re- 
sponded.   This  Morgan  ascribed, 

"  if  not  to  that  backwardness  which  the  Regimental  Surgeons  ever 
shewed  to  complying  with  General  Orders,  perhaps,  to  a  conscious 
shame  of  being  entirely  destitute  of  any  necessary  articles,  but  what 
they  had  been  previously  indulged  to  draw  from  the  General  Hos- 
pital. Some  of  them,  whom  I  afterwards  met,  and  inquired  into  the 
cause  of  their  neglect,  confessed  this  to  be  the  truth." 

Among  the  fifteen  regiments, 

"  All  the  instruments  were  reported  to  be  private  property,  and 
amounted  to  six  sets  of  amputating  instruments,  two  of  trepanning 

"  Vindication. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  299 

ditto,  fifteen  cases  of  pocket  instruments,  seventy-five  crooked,  and 
six  straight  needles.  Amongst  the  whole  fifteen  Surgeons,  there  were 
only  four  scalpels,  or  incision  knives,  for  dilating  wounds,  or  any 
other  purpose ;  three  pair  of  forceps  for  extracting  bullets ;  half 
a  paper  and  seventy  pins ;  and  but  few  bandages,  ligatures,  or  tour- 
niquets, and  as  little  old  linen,  lint  or  tow,  but  what  they  had  pro- 
cured from  the  General  Hospital ;  and  only  two  ounces  of  spunge 
in  all." 

Many  of  these  surgeons  excused  themselves  by  stating 
that  they  understood  that  these  suppHes  would  be  fur- 
nished to  them  upon  their  joining  the  army. 

Dr.  Norris  quotes  a  number  of  most  interesting  ex- 
tracts from  letters  which  he  had  had  the  opportunity  of 
reading  which  bear  upon  the  same  point.  Thus  Dr.  Bin- 
ney,  of  the  general  hospital,  was  sent  from  the  army  in 
New  York  to  Philadelphia  to  purchase  some  urgently 
needed  surgical  instruments.     But  he  reported 

"  that  there  was  no  instruments  to  be  purchased  at  any  rate,  and 
that  the  only  workmen  in  the  city  that  could  make  surgeons'  instru- 
ments was  engaged  by  Congress  upon  arms,  and  could  not  under- 
take any  work  for  a  long  time  to  come." 

Dr.  James  Hutchinson  wrote 

"  that  during  the  winter  of  1778  there  was  such  a  want  of  lancets, 
that  numbers  of  the  regimental  surgeons,  and  some  of  those  of  the 
flying  hospital  were  without  one." 

I  have  transcribed  from  Norris  the  three  letters  which 
follow.  They  represent  so  graphically  the  condition  of 
affairs  with  which  we  are  dealing  that  I  cannot  forego 
the  pleasure  of  presenting  them  to  the  reader. 

The  first  is  from  Dr.  Bartlett  to  Dr.  Potts. 

"  Headquarters,  July  26th,  1777. 
"  Dear  Sir  : 

"  Your  favour  of  the  2Sth  inst.  I  have  this  moment  received.  Shall 
comply  with  the  requisition  contained,  though  I  shall  be  left  with 
but  two  Regimental  Surgeons  in  the  whole  army.     I  am  this  moment 


300  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

returned  from  Fort  Edward,  where  a  party  of  Hell  Hounds,  in 
conjunction  with  their  brethren,  the  British  troops,  fell  on  our 
advance  guard,  and  inhumanely  butchered,  scalped,  and  stripd  four 
of  them,  and  wounded  two  more,  each  in  the  thigh;  four  more  are 
missing.  Poor  Miss  Jenny  McCrea,  and  the  woman  with  whom 
she  lived,  were  taken  by  the  savages,  led  up  the  hill  to  where  there 
was  a  body  of  British  troops,  there  the  poor  girl  was  shot  to  death 
in  cold  blood,  scalped  and  left  on  the  ground;  the  other  woman  not 
yet  found.  The  alarm  came  to  camp  at  two  p.m.,  I  was  at  dinner. 
I  immediately  sent  off  to  collect  all  the  Regimental  Surgeons,  in 
order  to  take  some  one  or  two  of  them  along  with  me  to  assist,  but 
the  Divil  a  bit  of  one  was  there  to  be  found,  except  three  mates, 
one  of  whom  had  the  squirts ;  the  other  two  I  took  with  me.  There 
is  neither  amputating  instruments,  crooked  needle,  or  tourniquet  in 
all  the  camp.  I  have  a  handful  of  lint,  and  two  or  three  bandages, 
and  that  is  all.  What  in  the  name  of  wonder  I  am  to  do  in  case 
of  an  attack,  God  only  knows ;  without  assistance,  without  instru- 
ments, without  everything.  What  can  have  become  of  Stewart  with 
the  stores,  medicine  chest,  my  baggage,  etc.  If  it  is  consistent  with 
the  public  good,  and  agreeable  to  your  opinion,  pray  assist  me  with 
one  or  two  of  your  surgeons.  My  respectful  compliments  to  your- 
self and  all  the  Fraternity. 

"  I  am,  Sir 

"  Your  very  humble  servant 

"Jno.   Bartlett 

"  Dr.  Potts,  Dep.  Director-Genl.  M.D." 

The  second  letter  illustrates  the  anger  of  Dr.  Cochran 
at  what  he  regarded  as  criminal  neglect  of  the  sick  in  the 
army.  It  is  addressed  to  Dr.  Potts  at  Morristown,  New 
Jersey. 

"  Dear  Sir  : — 

"  I  received  your  favor  by  Dr.  Bond,  and  am  extremely  sorry  for 
the  present  situation  of  the  Hospital  finances ;  the  stores  have  all 
been  expended  for  two  weeks  past,  and  not  less  than  600  Regimental 
sick  and  lame,  most  of  whom  require  some  assistance,  which  being 
withheld,  are  languishing  and  must  suffer.  I  flatter  myself  you  have 
no  blame  in  this  matter,  but  curse  on  him  or  them  by  whom  this 
evil  is  produced.  The  vengeance  of  an  offended  Deity  must  over- 
take the  miscreants  sooner  or  later.  It  grieves  my  soul  to  see  the 
poor,  worthy  brave  fellows  pine  away  for  want  of  a  few  comforts 
which  they  have  dearly  earned.     I  shall  wait  on  his  Excellency,  the 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  301 

Commander-in-Chief,  and  represent  our  situation,  but  I  am  persuaded 
it  can  have  little  effect,  for  what  can  he  do  ?  He  may  refer  the  matter 
to  Congress,  they  to  the  Medical  Committee,  who  would  probably 
pow-wow  over  it  for  a  while,  and  no  more  be  heard  of  it.  Thus  we 
go  before  the  wind.  Compliments  to  all  friends,  and  believe  me, 
Dear  Sir, 

"  Yours,  very  sincerely, 

"John  Cochran." 

The  last  of  the  three  letters  is  from  Dr.  Thomas  Bond, 
Jr.,  to  Dr.  Potts,  and  in  it  he  likewise  gives  vent  to  his 
indignation  at  the  sufferings  of  the  soldiers,  which  he 
is  obliged  to  witness  without  means  of  alleviating. 

"  Dear  Potts  : — 

"  The  Hospitals  are  all  suffering  for  want  of  stores,  particularly 
wine,  spirits,  tea,  coffee,  rice,  and  molasses.  Very  grievous  com- 
plaints were  made  me  yesterday  by  Dr.  Moses  Scott  and  Tilton, 
at  Baskenridge;  they  suffer  very  much  by  the  commissioners  not 
being  furnished  with  cash  by  which  they  can  procure  milk  and 
vegetables,  matters  so  necessary  to  a  sick  person.  God !  'twould 
make  you  feel  and  rouse  every  pulse  within  you  to  see  a  fine  brave 
fellow  who  has  nobly  fought  in  most  of  our  battles,  perhaps  been 
dangerously  wounded  in  one  or  more,  and  by  the  application  of  some 
prudent  and  generous  remedies  which  were  in  our  power  then  to  fur- 
nish him  with,  soon  recovered ;  I  say  would  rouse  every  feeling  now 
to  see  this  brave  man  languishing  on  a  sick  bed,  with  his  physician 
holding  his  wrist,  and  promising  to  send  him  some  more  Physic, 
when  perhaps  a  glass  of  generous  wine,  or  some  comfortable  hos- 
pital store  would  rouse  his  drooping  spirits,  and  prolong  that  life 
which  has,  and  is  from  principle  devoted  to  the  service  of  his 
country.  I  shall  talk  the  matter  over  very  freely  with  the  General 
the  first  opportunity,  and  let  him  know  our  situation,  by  which  the 
blame  must  be  taken  off  your  shoulders.  I  have  wrote  a  small  tale 
of  the  pathetic  for  our  brave  soldiers,  but  I  have  another  grievous  one 
to  relate  for  ourselves.  Joe  and  myself  have  spent  all  our  money, 
and  fear,  unless  we  can  borrow,  we  shall  starve ;  do  pray  prevent 
it  by  sending  us  cash.  You  may  depend  upon  it,  no  Surgeons  of  the 
army  can  lend  us  a  shilling. 

"  Yours, 

"  Thos.  Bond,  Jr. 

"  Dr.  Jonathan  Potts,  Dep.  Director-Genl.,  Philadelphia." 


302  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Warren  ^^  prints  a  letter  from  Dr.  Morgan  to  Dr.  John 
Warren  which  shows  how  Httle  could  be  done  to  provide 
for  the  emergencies  of  battle.  It  is  dated  August  23, 
1776,  four  days  before  the  battle  of  Long  Island. 

"  Sir  : — I  have  sent  to  the  surgeons,  desiring  the  youngest  off 
duty  to  go  to  your  assistance,  and  take  four  mates  with  him;  to 
carry  over  five  hundred  additional  bandages,  and  twelve  fracture 
boxes.  I  fear  they  have  no  scalpels,  as  whatever  I  have  committed 
to  the  hospitals  has  always  been  lost.  I  send  you  two,  in  which  case, 
if  you  want  more,  use  a  razor  for  an  incision  knife.  Let  me  know, 
from  time  to  time,  at  Long  Island. 

"  J.  Morgan 

"  To  Dr.  Warren,  Surgeon  of  the  General  Hospital  at  Long 
Island." 

Just  think  of  Dr.  Morgan's  being  unable  to  dole  out 
more  than  two  scalpels  to  the  surgeon  who  was  to  have 
charge  of  the  wounded  in  what  it  was  anticipated  would 
be  a  bloody  battle,  and  of  the  necessity  that  a  razor  should 
be  used  instead  of  a  scalpel. 

The  same  shortage  prevailed  as  regards  medicines,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  following  letter  to  Dr.  Warren : 

"  General  Hospital,  New  York. 
"Sir 

"  I  have  put  up  the  medicines  you  wrote  for — what  was  in  the 
store.  There  was  no  powdered  bark  and  I  have  sent  the  gross. 
The  tartar  emetic  which  is  sent,  is  made  here,  and  bound  to  be  good 
as  any,  although  it  looks  so  black.  Jalap  and  rhubarb,  we  have 
none.  I  have  put  up  some  sal.  cath.  as  a  substitute.  The  nitre  and 
cream  of  tartar  is  likewise  sent.  Dr.  Foster  desires  to  be  remembered 
to  you,  and  he  would  have  wrote  to  you  himself,  but  he  has  so 
much  business  on  his  hands  he  could  not  find  time  to.  Our  troops 
have  evacuated  Governor's  Island,  since  you  went  away.  It  is  said 
they  made  a  scandalous  retreat,  and  left  a  number  of  cannon,  etc., 
on  the  Island.  If  you  should  want  any  more  medicines,  if  you  will 
send,  I  will  put  them  up  if  they  are  in  store. 
"  Your  most  obedient 

"  J.  Bartlett." 

"°  Life  of  John  Warren,  p.  99. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  303 

In  1778  Dr.  John  Warren  was  senior  surgeon  of  the 
general  hospital  in  Boston,  which  was  situated  very  near 
what  is  now  the  location  of  the  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital.  So  great  was  the  difficulty  he  experienced  in 
obtaining  sufficient  supplies  for  his  hospital  that  he 
finally  wrote  the  following: 

"  To  HIS  EXCELLENCY  THE  GOVERNOR  AND  THE  HONORABLE  THE  COUN- 

cn.  OF  THE  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts: — 
"  Gentlemen  : — Though  I   have   frequently  represented  the  dis- 
tressed condition  of  the  sick  in  the  Continental  Hospital,  yet  I  have 
never  had  so  ample  occasion  to  deplore  their  miseries  as  at  present. 

"  For  some  days  they  have  not  had  an  ounce  of  meat ;  not  a 
stick  of  wood  but  what  they  have  taken  from  the  neighboring  fences ; 
for  near  a  week  not  a  vegetable;  and  scarcely  any  medicine  for 
above  a  year.  In  fine,  to  sum  up  the  whole  in  a  few  words,  the  sick 
and  wounded,  many  of  which  are  exceedingly  dangerous,  and  some 
of  them  in  a  state  which  requires  immediate  amputation,  are  not 
furnished  by  the  public  with  a  single  article  of  sustenance  except 
bread  alone,  and  must  have  perished  ere  this  had  not  the  charitable 
donations  of  a  few  individuals  in  some  measure  contributed  to  their 
relief.  I  have  been  incessantly  making  application  for  these  last 
twelve  months  to  all  the  departments  for  supplies,  but  cannot  procure 
any.  During  which  time  the  groans  of  the  sick  and  wounded,  suf- 
fering and  perhaps  dying,  for  want  of  necessities,  have  been  perpetu- 
ally saluting  my  ears.  I  must,  therefore,  beg  your  Excellency  and 
Honor's  action  in  this  matter,  and  am  with  the  greatest  respect, 
Gentlemen, 

"  Your  most  obedient  servant 

"J.  Warren"" 

Any  opportunities  which  presented  themselves  of  get- 
ting possession  of  the  much  coveted  medical  supplies  oi 
the  British  were  eagerly  seized.  At  the  evacuation  of 
Boston  the  British  left  behind  them  considerable  quan- 
tities of  hospital  stores.  There  is  in  the  "  Life  of  John 
Warren"  an  affidavit  made  by  the  latter,  which  brings 
forward  an  accusation  of  the  most  atrocious  behavior  on 

"  Life  of  John  Warren,  by  Edward  Warren. 


304  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

the  part  of  the  British.  Dr.  Edward  Warren  thinks  the 
outrage  was  attributable  to  the  maUce  of  subordinates  or 
camp  followers.  It  could  never  have  been  countenanced 
by  any  Englishman  of  position.  John  Warren's  deposi- 
tion was  as  follows : 

"  I,  John  Warren,  of  Cambridge,  physician,  testify  and  say,  that 
on  or  about  the  twenty-ninth  day  of  March  last  past,  I  went  into  the 
work-house  of  the  town  of  Boston,  lately  improved  as  a  hospital  by 
the  British  troops,  stationed  in  said  town,  and,  upon  examining  into 
the  state  of  a  large  quantity  of  medicine,  there  by  them  left,  par- 
ticularly in  one  room  supposed  to  have  been  by  them  used  as  a 
medicinal  store  room,  I  found  a  great  variety  of  medicinal  articles 
lying  upon  the  floor,  some  of  which  were  contained  and  secured  in 
papers,  whilst  others  were  scattered  upon  the  floor,  loose.  Amongst 
these  medicines,  I  observed  small  quantities  of  what,  I  supposed,  was 
white  and  yellow  arsenic  intermixed ;  and  then  received  information 
from  Dr.  Daniel  Scott,  that  he  had  taken  up  a  large  quantity  of  said 
arsenic  from  over  and  amongst  the  medicine,  and  had  collected  it 
chiefly  in  large  lumps,  and  secured  it  in  a  vessel.  Upon  receiving  this 
information,  I  desired  him  to  let  me  view  the  arsenic,  with  which 
he  complied,  and  I  judged  it  to  amount  to  about  quantity  of  twelve 
or  fourteen  pounds.  Being  much  surprised  by  this  extraordinary 
intelligence,  I  more  minutely  examined  the  medicines  on  the  floor, 
and  found  them  to  be  chiefly  capital  articles,  and  those  most  generally 
in  demand;  and,  judging  them  to  be  rendered  entirely  unfit  for  use, 
I  advised  Dr.  Scott  to  let  them  remain,  and  by  no  means  meddle 
with  them,  as  I  thought  the  utmost  hazard  would  attend  the  using 
of  them.  They  were  accordingly  suffered  to  remain,  and  no  account 
was  taken  of  them. 

"  John  Warren. 
"  Colony  of  Massachusetts-Bay,  Watertown,  .y..?. 

"  April  3rd,  1776. 

"  Then  John  Warren  made  solemn  oath  to  the  truth  of  the  above 
written  deposition  Before  me 

"James  Otis 
"  Justice  of  the  Peace  through  the  said  Colony." 

Daniel  Scott  and  Frederick  Ridgely  also  made  depo- 
sitions to  the  same  effect  as  Dr.  Warren's. 

General  Washington  was  most  keenly  solicitous  that 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  305 

the  medical  department  of  the  army  should  maintain  the 
highest  grade  of  efficiency.  Soon  after  joining  the  army 
engaged  in  the  siege  of  Boston  he  made  a  personal  visit 
of  inspection  to  all  the  hospitals  that  had  been  established 
in  the  camp  and  the  neighboring  towns.  On  July  21, 
1775,  he  wrote  to  Congress, — 

"  I  have  made  inquiry  into  the  establishment  of  the  hospital  and 
find  it  in  a  very  unsettled  condition.  There  is  no  principal  director, 
or  any  subordination  among  the  surgeons ;  of  consequence,  disputes 
and  contention  have  arisen,  and  must  continue  until  it  is  reduced  to 
some  system.  I  could  wish  it  were  immediately  taken  into  considera- 
tion, as  the  lives  and  health  of  both  officers  and  men  so  much  depend 
upon  due  regulation  of  this  department.  I  have  been  particularly 
attentive  to  the  least  symptoms  of  the  smallpox;  and  hitherto  we 
have  been  so  fortunate  as  to  have  every  person  removed  so  soon  as 
not  only  to  prevent  any  communication,  but  alarm  or  apprehension 
it  might  give  in  the  camp.  We  shall  continue  the  utmost  vigilance 
against  this  most  dangerous  enemy." 

Thacher  relates  the  following  incident,  which  well  illus^ 
trates  the  anxiety  of  the  people  for  the  welfare  of  such 
of  their  defenders  as  might  be  ill  or  wounded,  and  also 
how  acutely  sensitive  the  commander-in-chief  was  upon 
the  same  point : 

"  I  am  sorry  to  have  occasion  to  notice  in  my  journal  the  following 
occurrence :  The  body  of  a  soldier  has  been  taken  from  his  grave 
for  the  purpose,  probably  of  dissection,  and  the  empty  coffin  left 
exposed.  This  affair  occasions  considerable  excitement  among  our 
people ;  both  resentment  and  grief  are  manifested ;  as  it  seems  to 
impress  the  idea  that  a  soldier's  body  is  held  in  no  estimation  after 
death.  Such  a  practice,  if  continued,  might  be  attended  with  serious 
consequences,  as  it  affects  our  soldiers.  Much  inquiry  has  been  made, 
but  without  success,  for  the  discovery  of  the  persons  concerned ; 
and  the  practice  in  future  is  strictly  prohibited  by  the  commander-in- 
chief." 

Toner  ^^  quotes  the  following  letter  written  by  Wash- 
ington to  Congress,  in  which  he  expresses  his  views  on 

"  Medical  Men  of  the  Revolution. 
20 


3o6  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

the  surgeons  of  the  army.     It  is  dated  September  24, 
1776. 

"  No  less  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  choice  of  surgeons  than 
other  officers  of  the  army.  They  should  undergo  a  regular  examina- 
tion, and  if  not  appointed  by  the  Director-General  and  surgeons  of 
the  hospital,  they  ought  to  be  subordinate  to  and  governed  by  his 
directions. 

"  The  regimental  surgeons  I  am  speaking  of,  many  of  whom  are 
very  great  rascals,  countenancing  the  men  in  sham  complaints  to 
exempt  them  from  duty,  and  often  receiving  bribes  to  certify  indis- 
positions with  a  view  to  procure  discharges  or  furloughs. 

"  But  independent  of  these  practices,  while  they  are  considered  as 
unconnected  with  the  general  hospital,  there  will  be  nothing  but 
continual  complaints  of  each  other — the  director  of  the  hospital 
charging  them  with  enormity  in  their  drafts  for  the  sick,  and  they 
him  for  denying  such  things  as  are  necessary.  In  short  there  is  a 
constant  bickering  among  them  which  tends  greatly  to  the  injury 
of  the  sick,  and  will  always  subsist  till  the  regimental  surgeons  are 
made  to  look  up  to  the  Director-General  of  the  hospital  as  a  superior. 
Whether  this  is  the  case  in  regular  armies  or  not,  I  cannot  undertake 
to  say;  but  certain  I  am,  there  is  a  necessity  for  it  in  this,  or  the 
sick  will  suffer.  The  regimental  surgeons  are  aiming,  I  am  per- 
suaded, to  break  up  the  General  Hospital,  and  have  in  numberless 
instances  drawn  for  medicines,  stores,  etc.,  in  the  most  profuse  and 
extravagant  manner  for  private  purposes." 

In  1776  Washington  was  obHged  to  bring  the  sur- 
geons up  with  a  round  turn,  as  is  shown  by  the  following 
order : 

"  To  THE  Regimental  Surgeons  and  Mates,  belonging  to  the  army 
of  his   Excellency  General   Washington,  now  absent  with,   or 
without,  the  sick  of  their  respective   regiments   and  brigades, 
on  the  West  side  of  Hudson  River. 
"  Gentlemen  : — Few  of  the  surgeons  or  sick  allowed  to  remove 
from  camp,  some  time  ago,  being  yet  returned,  and  no  reports  made 
of  them  to  me ;  his  Excellency,  the  Commander-in-Chief,  considering 
his  former  indulgence  to  the  sick,  in  permitting  them  to  retire  from 
the  camp  for  the  recovery  of  their  health,  has  been  much  abused, 
both  by  the  sick  and  by  the  generality  of  the  Surgeons  and  Mates, 
under  whose  care  they  are  allowed  this  indulgence ; — It  is  his  Ex- 
cellency's orders,  therefore,  that  each  of  you  do  forthwith  wait  upon 
Dr.  Isaac  Foster,  Esq.,  at  Newark,  or  Dr.  Warren,  Esq.,  at  Hacken- 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  307 

sack,  Surgeons  in  the  General  Hospital,  which  ever  is  nearest  at 
hand;  and  make  a  faithful  and  accurate  report  of  the  state  of  the 
sick  and  wounded  under  your  care;  and  remove  those  who  are  fit 
subjects,  immediately  to  the  General  Hospital  under  their  care;  for 
which  you  are  to  apply  to  the  Quartermaster-General's  Department 
for  wagons ;    and  accompany  them  yourselves. 

"  Such  of  you  as  these  gentlemen  require  to  assist  them  for  the 
present  in  the  General  Hospital,  and  who  are  willing  to  attend 
their  sick  under  their  direction,  are  allowed  to  do  so  until  further 
orders ;  all  others  are  to  repair  immediately  to  headquarters,  and 
join  their  respective  regiments;  first  furnishing  me  with  an  accurate 
register  duly  certified,  of  the  state  of  the  sick  that  went  out  with 
them,  or  have  been  since  under  their  care ;  specifying  the  times  of 
their  being  taken  ill,  their  diseases,  and  events  as  to  death,  recovery, 
or  continuance ;  whether  any  of  the  sick  have  been  allowed  to  with- 
draw from  under  their  care,  and  when  ? — as  all  those  who  are  absent 
without  leave  must  naturally  be  looked  upon  as  deserters.  And  the 
Surgeons  and  Mates  who  cannot  give  a  regular  and  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  duty,  necessarily  subject 
themselves  to  an  inquiry  into  their  conduct. 

"  Signed  by  order  and  with  the  approbation  of  his  Excellency, 
George  Washington,  Esq.,  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  American 
forces,  at  the  camp  near  the  White  Plains,  November  4,  1776. 

'■  John  Morgan 
"  Director  General  of  the  Hospital  and  Physician-in-Chief. 

"  A  True  Copy ;  J.  Foster,  or  J.  Warren 

"  Surgeon  of  the  General  Hospital." 

This  order  was  accompanied  by  another : 

"  To  Dr.  John  Warren,  Esq., — You  are  desired  to  get  Mr.  Dela- 
mater  to  make  out  ten  or  a  dozen  copies  of  the  foregoing  circular 
order  to  the  regimental  surgeons,  to  be  forwarded  to  such  as  are  at 
Orange  County,  Tappan,  Haverstraw,  Paramus,  Polrey's,  etc.,  under 
cover,  to  be  communicated  from  one  to  another,  until  all  the  sick 
are  brought  in.  Let  my  name  be  put  to  the  letter,  and  each  copy  be 
certified  to  be  a  true  copy,  either  by  Doctor  Foster  or  you,  as  under- 
neath. Send  Doctor  Foster  two  or  three  copies,  and  retain  one  in 
your  keeping,  the  rest  to  be  sent  on  as  already  mentioned. 

"  J.  M." 

Warren  ^^  says  both  of  the  above  orders  seem  to  have 
been  enclosed  in  the  following  letter  to  Dr.  Warren: 

'"Loc.  cit. 


3o8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

"  Camp  near  White  Plains,  November  7,  1776. 

'■  Dear  Sir, — As  the  enemy  are  now  retiring  before  our  army 
toward  New  York,  and  a  detachment  has  filed  off  to  harass  them  I 
imagine  the  chief  of  the  army  will  follow.  Of  course  I  am  more 
than  ever  of  opinion  that  Hackensack  will  be  the  chief  place,  or 
headquarters,  for  the  General  Hospital  of  our  army. 

"  I  hope  therefore,  that  you  are  going  on  with  spirit  in  enlarging 
and  accommodating  suitable  quarters  for  the  patriots,  and  that  for 
that  purpose  you  apply  to,  and  receive  ample  assistance  from  Gen- 
eral Greene  and  Colonel  Biddle,  Deputy  Quartermaster-general,  etc. 

"  You  will  be  pleased  to  acquaint  all  the  surgeons  of  regiments  and 
mates,  that  went  from  this  army  and  the  Jerseys  and  Orange  County ; 
in  short,  all  you  meet  or  hear  of,  that  are  from  camp,  and  anywhere 
on  the  west  side  of  the  North  River,  under  a  pretext  of  taking  care 
of  the  sick  and  wounded  (except  such  as  you  require,  and  who  are 
willing  to  assist  you  in  the  business  of  the  General  Hospital  at 
Hackensack).  that  it  is  his  Excellency's  orders,  that  they  make  a 
report  of  their  sick  and  wounded  to  you,  that  they  deliver  them  up  to 
your  care,  and  return  immediately  to  camp. 

"  As  the  General's  former  indulgence  in  allowing  the  sick  to  retire 
from  camp  for  the  recovery  of  their  health,  under  certain  surgeons 
or  mates  of  the  brigade  to  which  thty  belonged,  has  been  greatly 
abused,  both  by  the  sick  and  by  the  surgeons ;  insomuch  that  few 
of  either  have  returned,  although  the  generality  of  the  sick,  it  is  well 
known,  are  sufficiently  recovered  to  do  duty ;  and  not  one  of  those 
surgeons  or  mates  have  made  any  report  either  to  the  Commander- 
in-Chief  or  to  me,  by  which  the  state  of  the  sick  can  be  known ; 
they  are  requested  to  furnish  me  with  a  proper  certified  register  of 
the  state  of  the  sick  that  went  out  under  their  care,  a  report  of  the 
times  when  any  of  them  deceased,  and  the  recovery  of  others ;  like- 
wise whether  any  of  the  sick  have  been  allowed  to  withdraw  from 
under  their  care.  All  the  soldiers,  whether  under  pretense  of  sickness 
or  not,  who  are  absent  without  leave,  must  naturally  be  looked  upon 
as  deserters,  and  the  surgeons  or  mates,  who  cannot  give  a  regular 
and  satisfactory  account  of  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  trust, 
necessarily  subject  themselves  to  an  inquiry  into  their  conduct.  I 
shall  inclose  to  you  a  circular  letter  to  be  communicated  to  the 
regimental  surgeons  and  mates,  and  directions  how  to  do  it,  which 
please  to  observe. 

"  I  am  to  desire  you  to  examine  into  the  state  of  the  sick  who 
offer  to  you,  and  have  been  long  ill, — certifying  those  whom  you 
think  will  be  unfit  for  any  further  service  during  the  present  cam- 
paign,  and  that  have  friends  to  take  care  of  them,  and  who  are 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  309 

desirous  of  a  discharge, — that  I  may  procure  it  for  them.  The 
enemy  are  now  retreating.  I  suppose  we  shall  soon  follow.  I  hope, 
therefore,  before  it  is  long,  to  have  it  in  my  power  to  pay  you  a 
visit  at  Hackensack.  Compliments  to  all  friends.  Let  me  have 
weekly  returns,  punctually.  I  remain,  dear  sir,  your  most  obedient 
and  very  humble  servant, 

"  John  Morgan 
"  To  Dr.  John  Warren^  Esq.,  Surgeon  of  the  General  Hospital 
at  Hackensack." 

Toner  ^^  printed  a  previously  unpublished  letter  from 
Washington  to  General  Smallwood,  which  shows  th^ 
former's  desire  that  full  justice  should  be  done  to  the 
surgeons  in  the  disposition  of  goods  captured  from  the 
enemy.  A  British  brig,  the  "  Symetry,"  had  been  cap- 
tured by  the  forces  under  General  Smallwood  while  the 
vessel  was  in  the  Delaware  River  near  Wilmington.  The 
letter  is  self-explanatory. 

"  Headquarters,  Valley  Forge,  13th  of  Jan.  1778. 

"  Dear  Sir:  Since  writing  to  you  this  morning  on  the  subject  of 
the  prize  Brig  Symetry,  the  Regulations  of  the  Field  Officers  of  the 
Division  for  conducting  the  Sale  and  disposing  of  the  cargo  was 
laid  before  me  with  a  letter  from  the  Regimental  Surgeons  and 
Mates  to  Doer.  Cochran.  These  Gentlemen  feel  themselves  so  much 
hurt  by  the  discrimination  made  by  these  Regulations  between 
them  and  the  officers  of  the  division  that  they  have  sent  in  their 
Resignations. 

"  As  the  common  Guardian  of  the  Rights  of  every  Man  in  this 
Army  I  am  constrained  to  interfere  in  this  matter  and  to  say  that 
by  these  regulations  a  manifest  injury  is  intended  not  only  to  the 
Gentlemen  in  the  medical  line,  but  to  the  whole  Staff,  who,  supposing 
the  prize  should  be  adjudged  the  sole  property  of  the  Captors  (a 
matter  in  my  opinion  not  easily  to  be  reconciled  on  principles  of 
equity  and  Reason),  have  as  good  a  right  to  become  purchasers  in 
the  first  instance  and  to  all  other  privileges,  as  any  Officers  in  the 
Division. 

"  For  these  Reasons  therefore  I  desire  that  you  will  not  proceed 
to  a  Sale  or  distribution  of  any  of  the  Articles,  except  the  Vessel, 

"  Medical  Men  of  the  Revolution,  p.  65. 


3IO 


THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


till  you  have  my  further  directions,  and  that  you  will  as  early  as  pos- 
sible transmit  me  an  inventory  of  the  Baggage  and  Stores. 

"  The  letter  to  Congress  is  nevertheless  to  go  on,  and  you  will 
please  to  forward  it  by  the  first  conveyance. 
"  I  am,  Dear  Sir, 

"  Yr.  most  obt.  Servt., 
(Signed)  "G.Washington. 

"  General  Small  wood" 

In  this  connection  Toner  quotes  from  Sparks's  "  Life 
and  Writings  of  Washington"  an  anecdote  concerning 
a  graceful  act  of  General  Washington's  to  an  English 
army  surgeon.  It  appears  that  when  the  "  Symetry"  was 
seized  there  were  in  her  cargo  a  number  of  medical  books 
belonging  to  Dr.  Boyes,  of  the  British  army.  This  gen- 
tleman wrote  to  General  Washington  requesting  the  re- 
turn of  the  books.  On  January  22,  1778,  Washington 
wrote  to  General  Smallwood  as  follows : 

"  A  few  days  ago,  I  received  a  very  polite  letter  from  Doctor 
Boyes,  Surgeon  of  the  15th  regiment,  British,  requesting  me  to 
return  him  some  valuable  medical  manuscripts,  taken  in  the  brig 
Symetry.  He  says,  they  are  packed  in  a  neat  kind  of  a  portable 
library,  and  consist  of  Dr.  Cullen's  lectures  on  the  practice  of  med., 
thirty-nine  or  forty  vols ;  Cullen's  lectures  on  the  Institutes  of  Med., 
eighteen  vols ;  Anatomical  lectures,  eight  vols.,  and  Dr.  Black  on 
Chemistry,  nine  vols ;  the  whole  in  octavo.  If  they  can  be  found, 
I  beg  that  they  may  be  sent  up  to  me,  that  I  may  return  them  to  the 
Doctor.  I  have  no  other  view  in  doing  this,  than  that  of  showing 
our  enemies  we  do  not  war  against  the  Sciences." 

The  surgeons  of  the  Continental  army  seem  to  have 
been  frequently  the  victims  of  slights  and  insults  when 
military  matters  were  being  dealt  with  by  Congress. 

In  1779  Congress  passed  a  resolution  that  all  line  offi- 
cers of  the  army  who  should  remain  in  the  service  until 
the  end  of  the  war  should  receive  half-pay  for  the  rest 
of  their  lives,  that  the  deficiency  in  their  pay  due  to  de- 
preciation of  the  Continental  currency  should  be  made 
up,  and  that  a  bounty  of  land  should  be  given  to  them. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  311 

No  provision  was  made  as  regarded  officers  of  the  medi- 
cal department,  and  they  were  very  justly  angered  by 
what  they  regarded  as  an  unjust  discrimination.  The 
surgeons  of  the  Eastern  Department  took  vigorous  meas- 
ures. Some  of  the  Massachusetts  surgeons  put  their 
heads  together  and  drew  up  the  following  paper.-^ 

"  We,  the  subscribers,  officers  of  the  Medical  Department  in  the 
army  of  the  United  States,  do  hereby  mutually  engage  on  honor, 
each  to  one  another,  that  we  do  join  with  the  other  members  of  that 
department,  in  a  petition  to  Congress  which  we  have  subscribed, 
bearing  date  October  5,  1779,  the  purport  of  which  is  to  call  the 
attention  of  Congress  to  our  affairs,  and  require  that  in  a  limited 
time  they  shall  come  to  some  definite  resolution  thereon ;  and  we 
do  mutually  and  severally  engage  to  one  another,  that  unless  the 
terms  of  the  petition  which  we  have  subscribed  are  complied  with 
by  Congress  before  the  first  day  of  January  next  (1780),  we  will, 
on  that  day,  resign  our  several  appointments  in  said  medical  depart- 
ment, and  will  not  again  serve  or  do  any  part  of  the  duty  of  that 
department,  on  any  consideration  or  pretense  whatever,  until  Con- 
gress shall  have  paid  a  satisfactory  attention  to  said  petition,  by 
declaring  explicitly  what  shall  be  the  arrangement  of  that  depart- 
ment, and  what  shall  thereafter  be  the  emolument  and  recompense 
to  be  granted  and  allowed  to  the  several  officers  thereof,  and  until 
such  definite  resolution  of  Congress  be  made  public. 

"  In  witness  of  which  engagement,  we  have  hereto  set  our  names." 

Dr.  Edward  Warren  says  this  remarkable  document 
is  in  the  handwriting  of  Dr.  Eustis,  and  was  signed  by 
W.  Browne  and  D.  Eustis.  He  attributes  the  credit  of 
its  suppression  to  the  councils  of  Dr.  John  Warren.  The 
petition  referred  to  was  submitted  to  Congress,  but  failed 
to  produce  any  result.  The  reply  to  it  was  directed  to 
Mr.  Thomas  Carnes,  and  was  as  follows : 

"  Sir, — Your  letter  by  Dr.  Eustis  was  safely  delivered  to  me  with 
the  inclosures.  I  presented  your  petition  to  Congress ;  and  am 
sorry  to  inform  you  that  they  have  taken  no  order  thereon.     Several 

"Edward  Warren's  "Life  of  John  Warren." 


312 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


gentlemen  gave  it  as  their  opinion  that  your  appUcation  should  have 
been  made  to  the  State  of  Massachusetts.  I  moved  to  have  it  referred 
to  the  Council  of  said  State ;  but  it  was  thought  unnecessary,  as  you 
would  be  informed  without  a  particular  reference  to  Congress.  In- 
deed I  think  it  not  likely  that  they  will  take  any  order  respecting 
the  same. 

"  I  am  sorry  for  your  misfortune,  and  that  I  have  not  been  able 
to  afford  you  any  relief.    I  am  your  most  obedient  servant 

"  S.  HOLTON." 

Dr.  Warren  then  drew  up  for  his  fellow-surgeons  and 
himself  the  following  petition: 

"  To  THE  Honorable  Council  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
OF  the  State  of  Massachusetts-Bay,  New  England,  in 
General  Court  assembled  : — 

"  The  petition  and  remonstrance  of  the  officers  on  the  Staff  be- 
longing to  the  State,  and  employed  in  the  several  departments 
thereof,  in  behalf  of  themselves  and  those  serving  under  them, 
humbly  showeth : — 

"  That  your  petitioners  did  in  the  last  session  of  your  Honorable 
Court,  prefer  a  petition  setting  forth  the  many  hardships  and  incon- 
veniences under  which  they  labored  from  the  most  enormous  depre- 
ciation of  the  currency,  and  the  consequent  diminution  of  their  pay 
granted  them  for  their  public  services ;  from  all  which  grievances 
they  humbly  requested  relief,  and  prayed  to  be  admitted  to  all  the 
benefits  and  advantages  so  justly  and  so  wisely  allowed  to  the 
officers  of  the  line;  but  to  our  inexpressible  mortification  did  we 
learn  that  after  an  almost  unanimous  resolve  had  passed  the  House 
in  our  favor,  the  Honorable  Board,  for  want  of  a  conviction  of  the 
reasonableness  of  our  petition,  thought  fit  to  reject  it  with  their  non- 
concurrence. 

"  Nothing,  gentlemen,  but  a  thorough  consciousness  of  the  justice 
of  their  claim,  and  the  fullest  confidence  which  they  repose  in  the 
candor  of  the  two  houses,  as  well  as  their  approved  disposition  to 
distribute  the  most  equal  justice  through  every  branch  of  public 
administration,  could  have  induced  your  petitioners  again  to  have 
called  your  attention  to  their  most  intollerable  sufferings,  and  to 
distresses  which  it  is  in  the  power  of  your  Honors  only  to  remove. 
Permit  us,  gentlemen,  humbly  to  represent : — 

"  That  from  the  depreciation  of  the  money,  your  petitioners  are 
as  great,  if  not  much  greater  sufferers  than  the  officers,  of  the  line. 
For  the  support  of  this  position  your  Honors'  own  experience,  in 
this  town  especially,  of  the  enormous  prices  of  the  necessaries  of 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  313 

life,  is  a  sufficient  testimony,  and  the  necessary  expenses  of  living 
attending  the  Staff  in  this  State,  are  most  incontestably  much  greater 
than  those  of  the  line  in  Camp. 

"  Secondly,  that  being  stationed  out  of  Camp,  and  considered  as 
inhabitants  of  their  places  of  abode,  your  petitioners  are  subjected 
to  taxation  of  personal  estate  and  faculty,  which  alone  is  sufficient 
to  swallow  up  nearly  the  whole  of  our  present  pay,  and  from  which 
the  line  are  exempt. 

"  Thirdly,  that  the  allowance  made  for  their  subsistence,  has  not 
generally  been  nine  tenths  so  much  as  the  officers  of  the  line. 

"  Fourthly,  your  petitioners  would  observe,  that  as  their  whole 
time  is  employed  in  the  duties  of  their  respective  departments,  and 
their  concerns  are  allowedly  more  extensive  and  perplexing  than 
those  of  the  line,  the  nature  of  their  services  richly  entitle  them  to 
an  adequate  compensation. 

"  But,  Fifthly,  to  make  use  of  an  argument  which  your  petitioners 
are  persuaded  will  weigh  more  in  the  minds  of  your  Honors,  than 
every  other  reason  here  offered,  permit  them  to  observe  that  the 
stipulation  upon  which  they  entered  the  service,  and  have  hitherto 
continued  in  it,  upon  the  principle  of  equity,  demands  some  considera- 
tion for  the  depreciation  of  the  currency  by  which  we  have  been  so 
great  sufferers ;  and  we  need  but  hint  to  your  Honors,  that  in  the 
eye  of  justice  the  laborer  is  equally  deprived  of  his  hire,  whether  the 
contract  by  which  his  reward  stipulated  be  infringed  by  withholding 
the  nominal  sum,  or  by  paying  it  at  a  diminished  value.  He  is  in 
both  cases  equally  deprived  of  a  real  compensation  for  his  labor, 
and  must  in  proportion  thereto  be  considered  as  imposed  upon. 

"  Your  petitioners  would,  moreover,  in  justice  to  themselves  ob- 
serve, notwithstanding  the  temptations  of  gain  on  one  side,  and  the 
threats  of  poverty  and  distress  to  their  families  on  the  other,  they 
trust  no  instance  can  be  adduced  of  fraud  or  neglect  by  the  Staff 
in  this  State.  No  superior  advantages  sufficient  by  any  means  to 
compensate  for  their  inconveniences,  do  the  Staff  of  this  State  enjoy 
from  the  places  of  their  stations.  As  to  risk  of  life,  some  of  them 
have  been,  and  some  still  are  more  exposed  than  if  in  the  camp  or 
in  the  field;  and  to  the  others,  life  itself  is  not  worth  possessing 
under  their  present  hardships. 

"  Your  petitioners,  confiding  in  the  wisdom  and  integrity  of  your 
Honors,  and  the  manifest  injustice  of  their  being  made  the  only 
sufferers  from  depreciation  in  the  whole  army,  nay,  indeed  they 
may  almost  say  in  the  whole  community,  doubted  not  but  that  your 
Honors  would  be  induced  to  put  them  upon  the  same  establish- 
ment with  the  line,  or  grant  such  other  relief  as  your  Honors  shall 
decide." 


314  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

The  Massachusetts  authorities  lent  a  favorable  ear  to 
this  petition,  and  Congress  ultimately  placed  the  sur- 
geons on  an  equal  footing  with  the  line  officers  in  the 
important  matters  of  pay,  pensions,  and  bounties. 

Not  much  contemporary  literature  concerning  the 
medical  affairs  of  the  Revolutionary  army  was  written, 
but  on  that  account  the  little  that  remains  to  us  is  doubly 
interesting. 

In  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  History  and  Biog- 
raphy for  October,  1897,  was  published  parts  of  the 
Diary  kept  by  Dr.  Albigence  Waldo  during  the  winter 
of  1 777- 1 778.  It  was  printed  from  the  manuscript  con- 
tributed by  Mr.  Amos  Perry,  with  notes  by  the  editor  of 
the  Magazine.  It  goes  into  such  interesting  details  as  to 
the  daily  life  and  interests  of  the  army  surgeon  of  those 
days  that  I  have  made  copious  abstracts  from  it. 

Albigence  Waldo  was  born  February  27,  1750,  at  Pom- 
fret,  Connecticut.  He  received  a  good  common-school 
education,  supplemented  by  a  course  of  instruction  in 
Latin  under  the  Rev.  Aaron  Putnam.  When  but  a  boy 
he  was  apprenticed,  according  to  the  usual  custom  of 
those  days,  to  Dr.  John  Spaulding,  of  Canterbury,  Con- 
necticut, to  be  educated  as  a  physician.  When  the  Revo- 
lution began  he  at  once  joined  the  Continental  army,  first 
serving  as  a  clerk  in  Captain  Samuel  McClelland's  Wood- 
stock company.  On  the  6th  of  July,  1775,  he  received 
his  commission  as  surgeon's  mate  of  the  Eighth  Con- 
necticut Regiment,  Colonel  Jedidiah  Huntington,  but  in 
September  of  the  same  year  was  obliged  to  resign  owing 
to  ill-health.  The  Connecticut  Committee  of  War,  on 
December  14,  1776,  commissioned  him  as  chief  surgeon 
of  the  armed  ship  "  Oliver  Cromwell."  January  i,  1777, 
he  was  commissioned  surgeon  of  the  First  Connecticut 
Infantry  Regiment  of  the  Line,  and  served  as  such  while 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  315 

the  regiment  was  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Samuel  Prentice  and  Colonel  Josiah  Starr,  and 
attached  to  Huntington's  brigade  of  McDougall's  divi- 
sion. In  September,  1777,  this  regiment  joined  the  army 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  was  in  camp  at  Valley  Forge  and 
participated  in  the  battle  of  Germantown,  where  it  suf- 
fered severely.  While  in  camp  at  Valley  Forge  the  army 
underwent  a  general  inoculation  for  the  smallpox,  and 
Dr.  Waldo  was  very  active  in  the  work.  Here  he  kept 
a  most  entertaining  journal  of  his  camp-life,  and  shows 
us  vivid  pictures  of  the  fearful  sufferings  of  the  officers 
and  men. 

Thus,  December  21,  1777,  he  writes, — 

"  Preparations  made  for  hutts.  Provisions  scarce.  Mr  Ellis  went 
homeward  —  sent  a  Letter  to  my  Wife.  Heartily  wish  myself  at 
home,  my  Skin  &  eyes  are  almost  spoil'd  with  continual  smoke.  A 
general  cry  thro'  the  Camp  this  Evening  among  the  Soldiers,  '  No 
Meat !  No  Meat !' — the  Distant  vales  Echo'd  back  the  melancholly 
sound  —  *  No  Meat !  No  Meat !'  Immitating  the  noise  of  Crows  & 
Owls,  also  made  a  part  of  the  confused  Musick.  What  have  you  for 
your  Dinners  Boys?  'Nothing  but  Fire,  Cake,  &  Water,  Sir.'  At 
night,  Gentlemen  the  Supper  is  ready.  '  What  is  your  Supper,  Lads? 
'  Fire,  Cake,  &  Water,  Sir.' 

"  Very  poor  beef  has  been  drawn  in  our  Camp  the  greater  part 
of  this  season. 

"  December  22nd.  —  Lay  excessive  Cold  &  uncomfortable  last 
Night — my  eyes  started  out  from  their  Orbits  like  a  Rabbit's  eyes, 
occasion'd  by  a  great  Cold  &  Smoke. 

"  What  have  you  got  for  Breakfast,  Lads? 

"  '  Fire,  Cake,  &  Water,  Sir.'  The  Lord  send  that  our  Commis- 
sary of  Purchases  may  live  on  Fire,  Cake,  &  Water,  'till  their  glutted 
Gutts  are  turned  to  Pasteboard. 

"  Our  Division  are  under  Marching  Orders  this  morning.  I  am 
ashamed  to  say  it,  but  I  am  tempted  to  steal  Fowls  if  I  could  find 
them,  or  even  a  whole  Hog,  for  I  feel  as  if  I  could  eat  one.  But  the 
Impoverish'd  Country  about  us  affords  but  little  matter  to  employ 
a  Thief,  or  keep  a  Clever  Fellow  in  good  humour." 

On  Chri.stmas  Day,  1777.  the  following  is  his  entry: 


3i6  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

"  We  are  still  in  Tents  —  when  we  ought  to  be  in  huts  —  the 
poor  Sick,  suffer  much  in  Tents  this  cold  Weather.  But  we  now 
treat  them  differently  from  they  used  to  be  at  home,  under  the  in- 
spection of  Old  Women  and  Doct.  Bolus  Linctus.  We  give  them 
Mutton  &  Grogg  and  a  Capital  Medicine  once  in  a  while,  to  start  the 
Disease  from  its  foundation  at  once.  We  avoid  Piddling  Pills, 
Powders,  Bolus's  Linctus's  Cordials  and  all  such  insignificate  mat- 
ters whose  powers  are  only  render'd  important  by  causing  the  Patient 
to  vomit  up  his  money  instead  of  his  disease.  But  very  few  of  the 
sick  Men  Die." 

In  a  foot-note  the  editor  of  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine 
of.  History  and  Biography  states  that  at  this  time  there 
were  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety-eight  men 
in  the  camp  reported  by  the  surgeons  as  unfit  for  duty. 

During  the  winter  there  was  much  grumbUng  among 
the  troops  and  in  Congress  at  Washington's  remaining 
in  camp'  at  Valley  Forge  and  not  making  any  attempt 
to  bring  the  enemy  to  a  battle.  Dr.  Waldo  speaks  of  these 
attacks  on  his  commander  in  the  strongest  terms  of  cen- 
sure, and  praises  highly  the  wisdom  and  prudence  which 
would  not  chance  the  success  of  the  Revolution  on  a  rash 
conflict  with  a  superiorly  equipped  enemy,  but  waited 
with  patience  an  opportunity  to  take  the  British  at  a  dis- 
advantage. 

He  plaintively  records  the  hardships  of  a  man  who 
persisted  in  doing  his  duty  and  standing  by  his  country 
in  its  hour  of  peril.  He  was  of  a  most  domestic  dispo- 
sition, and  his  journal  continually  refers  to  the  charms  of 
his  fireside  and  how  much  his  wife  desired  his  return  to 
his  home.     On  December  28,  1777,  he  writes, — 

"  When  the  Officer  has  been  fatiguing  thro'  wet  &  cold  and  returns 
to  his  tent  where  he  finds  a  letter  directed  to  him  from  his  Wife, 
fill'd  with  the  most  heart  aching  tender  Complaints,  a  Woman  is 
capable  of  writing  —  Acquainting  him  with  the  incredible  difficulty 
with  which  she  procures  a  little  Bread  for  herself  &  Children  —  and 
finally  concluding  with  expressions  bordering  on  despair,  of  procuring 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  317 

a  sufficiency  of  food  to  keep  soul  &  Body  together  through  the 
Winter  —  that  her  money  is  of  very  little  consequence  to  her  —  that 
she  begs  of  him  to  consider  that  Charity  begins  at  home  —  and  not  to 
suffer  his  family  to  perish  with  want,  in  the  midst  of  plenty.  When 
such,  I  say  —  is  the  tidings  they  constantly  hear  from  their  families 
—  What  man  is  there  —  who  has  the  least  regard  for  his  family  — 
whose  soul  would  not  shrink  within  him." 

We  get  occasional  glimpses  of  how  they  made  the  time 
pass  in  the  camp.     December  31,  1777,  he  writes, — 

"Adjutant  Selden  learn's  me  how  to  Darn  Stockings  —  to  make 
them  look  like  knit  work.'' 

At  this  time  the  British  prisons  in  Philadelphia  were 
crowded  with  American  prisoners,  whose  sufferings  ap- 
pealed to  the  sensibilities  of  Dr.  Waldo  in  the  midst  of 
his  own.     December  18,  1777,  he  writes, — 

"  Our  brethren  who  are  unfortunately  Prisoners  in  Philadelphia 
meet  with  the  most  savage  and  inhumane  treatments  that  Barbarians 
are  Capable  of  inflicting.  Our  Enemies  do  not  knock  them  in  the 
head  or  burn  them  with  torches  to  death,  or  flee  them  alive,  or 
gradually  dismember  them  till  they  die,  which  is  customary  among 
Savages  &  Barbarians.  No,  they  are  worse  by  far.  They  suffer 
them  to  starve,  to  linger  out  their  lives  in  extreem  hunger.  One  of 
these  poor  unhappy  men,  drove  to  the  last  extreem  by  the  rage  of 
hunger,  eat  his  own  fingers  up  to  the  first  joint  from  the  hand,  before 
he  died.  Others  eat  the  Clay,  the  Lime,  the  Stones  of  the  Prison 
Walls.  Several  who  died  in  the  Yard  had  pieces  of  Bark,  Wood, 
Clay,  &  Stones  in  their  mouths,  which  the  ravings  of  hunger  had 
caused  them  to  take  for  food  in  the  last  Agonies  of  Life !  '  These 
are  thy  mercies,  O  Britain !'  " 

These  stories  of  cruelty  have  been  substantiated  from 
many  different  sources,  and  the  brutality  of  Cunningham, 
the  provost-marshal,  made  his  name  a  byword  among 
the  Americans. 

However,  Dr.  Waldo  determined,  if  possible,  to  ob- 
tain a  furlough  and  visit  his  home.  He  procured  a  rec- 
ommendation for  one  from  General  Huntington.  On 
applying  with  it  to  Dr.  Cochran,  the  latter  said, — 


3i8  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

" '  I  am  willing  to  oblige  every  Gentlemen  of  the  Faculty,  but 
some  of  the  Boston  Surgeons  have  by  taking  an  underhand  method 
of  getting  furlows,  occasion'd  a  Complaint  to  be  lodg'd  with  his 
Excellency,  who  has  positively  forbid  my  giving  any  furlows  at 
present.  We  shall  soon  have  regimental  Hospitals  erected  —  and 
general  Ones  to  receive  the  super-abundant  Sick  from  them;  if 
you  will  tarry  till  such  regulations  are  made  —  you  will  have  an 
honourable  furlow,  and  even  now  —  I  will,  if  you  desire  it  —  recom- 
mend you  to  his  Excellency  for  one  —  but  desire  you  would  stay  a 
little  while  longer  —  and  in  the  meantime  recommend  to  me  some 
young  Surgeon  for  a  Regiment,  and  I  will  immediately  appoint  him 
to  a  chief  Surgeoncy  from  your  recommendation  —  I  will  remember 
the  rascals  who  have  us'd  me  ill.' 

"  I  concluded  to  stay  —  &  immediately  set  about  fixing  accom- 
modation for  the  Sick." 

January  5,  1778,  he  says, — 

"  Apply'd  for  a  Furlow,  Surgn.  Gen'l  not  at  home  —  come  back 
mumping  &  Sulkey. 

"  January  6th.  Apply'd  again  —  was  deny'd  by  reason  of  Inocula- 
tions being  set  on  foot  —  &  because  the  Boston  Surgeons  had  too 
many  of  them  gone  —  one  of  whom  is  to  be  broke  for  his  lying  & 
deceiving  in  order  to  get  a  furlow  —  and  I  wish  his  cursed  tongue 
was  puU'd  out,  for  thus  giving  an  example  of  scandal  to  the  New 
England  Surgeons,  tho'  the  Connectt.  Ones  are  well  enough  re- 
spected at  present." 

But  at  last  his  furlough  arrives  and  he  starts  home. 

"January  9th.  Unexpectedly  got  a  Furlow.  Set  out  for  home. 
The  very  worst  of  Riding — Mud  &  Mire.  We  had  gone  thro'  In- 
oculation before  this  furlow." 

On  October  i,  1779,  he  resigned  his  commission  be- 
cause of  ill-health,  and  then  settled  down  to  practise  his 
profession  in  Windham  County,  Connecticut.  After  re- 
maining there  for  some  time  he  went  to  Maryland  with 
a  view  of  practising  in  that  State,  but  he  returned  to 
Windham  after  a  year's  absence  and  remained  there  until 
his  death. 

He  was  especially  known  for  his  ability  as  a  surgeon, 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  319 

although,  of  course,  he  practised  general  medicine  as  well 
as  surgery.  He  was  an  accomplished  man,  skilled  in 
music  and  the  fine  arts,  and  somewhat  of  a  poet.  He 
delivered  a  funeral  oration  at  the  burial  of  Israel  Put- 
nam. He  was  active  in  organizing  the  medical  society 
of  Windham  County,  which  was  subsequently  united  with 
the  society  formed  at  New  Haven  to  constitute  the  Con- 
necticut State  Medical  Society.  He  was  very  charitable, 
and  left  a  small  estate  in  consequence  of  his  generosity. 
His  death  occurred  January  29,  1794. 

Dr.  John  Morgan's  "  Vindication"  is  also,  as  we  have 
seen,  a  great  fund  of  information  concerning  the  medical 
department  of  the  Continental  army.  The  book  is  ex- 
tremely rare.  The  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia 
possesses  a  copy  in  excellent  condition,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  Dr.  James  Mease,  and  has  his  name  on  the 
title-page.  I  have  several  times  in  the  foregoing  pages 
quoted  from  Dr.  James  Tilton's  "  Economical  Observa- 
tions on  Military  Hospitals."  This  pamphlet  contained 
the  author's  views  on  the  principles  that  should  guide 
the  sanitation  of  an  army  and  the  regulation  of  its  hos- 
pital. The  work  is  very  practical  and  full  of  common 
sense.  He  adduces  arguments  derived  from  his  own  per- 
sonal experience  as  an  army  surgeon  to  support  the  vari- 
ous contentions  which  he  makes. 

Another  literary  contribution  which  I  consider  most 
noteworthy  is  Benjamin  Rush's  pamphlet  entitled  "  Direc- 
tions for  Preserving  the  Health  of  Soldiers,"  which  was 
published  by  order  of  the  Board  of  War.  It  is  "  Ad- 
dressed to  the  Officers  of  the  Army  of  the  United  States," 
and  contains  many  excellent  sanitary  rules  in  a  brief  but 
clear  form,  explaining  clearly  their  reasonableness  and 
pointing  out  their  utility.  Many  of  the  points  he  lays 
stress  on  are  similar  to  those  emphasized  by  Tilton.     No 


320  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

one  interested  in  military  hygiene  could  more  profitably 
devote  the  short  time  necessary  for  their  perusal  than  to 
a  careful  reading  of  these  two  articles.  They  are  as  full 
of  meat  as  a  nut,  and  their  rules  are  just  as  applicable 
to-day  as  they  were  one  hundred  years  ago. 

Dr.  John  Jones,  Professor  of  Surgery  in  King's  Col- 
lege, New  York,  published  in  the  year  1775  a  book  en- 
titled "  Plain  Concise  Practical  Remarks  on  the  Treat- 
ment of  Wounds  and  Fractures,  to  which  is  added  a  short 
Appendix  on  Camp  and  Military  Hospitals,  Principally 
Designed  for  the  use  of  young  Military  Surgeons  in 
North  America."  The  appendix  consists  chiefly  of  ab- 
stracts from  the  famous  book  by  Sir  John  Pringle,  with 
various  comments  by  Dr.  Jones.  This  work  attained  a 
large  sale,  and  served  as  the  guide  to  military  surgery 
to  most  of  the  surgeons  in  the  American  army;  there 
is,  however,  but  little  in  it  for  those  who  desire  informa- 
tion on  the  history  of  the  war. 

An  interesting  contribution  to  military  hygiene  is 
afforded  in  the  "  History  of  a  Dysentery  in  the  226.  Regi- 
ment of  the  late  Continental  Army,"  by  Dr.  Ebenezer 
Beardsley.  This  little  article  was  published  in  the  first 
volume  of  transactions  ever  issued  by  a  medical  society 
in  this  country, — namely,  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  New 
Haven  County  Medical  Society  for  1788."  He  details 
how  dysentery  developed  as  the  result  of  putting  the 
regiment  into  crowded  unsanitary  barracks,  and  how  the 
epidemic  was  checked  by  moving  it  into  more  commo- 
dious quarters. 


IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  321 


CHAPTER    VII. 

THE    EARLIEST    HOSPITALS. 

The  Pennsylvania  Hospital.^ 
The  oldest  institution  intended  solely  for  the  care  of 
the  sick  and  wounded  within  the  limits  of  what  is  now 
the  United  States  is  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  in  Phila- 
delphia. There  are  several  institutions  in  Canada  and 
in  Mexico  which  can  lay  claim  to  a  greater  antiquity,  and 
sometimes  it  is  asserted  that  the  Philadelphia  Hospital, 
as  the  infirmary  of  the  Philadelphia  Almshouse  has  come 
to  be  known,  is  more  ancient.  But  the  latter  claim  is 
based  on  a  total  misapprehension.  It  is  claimed  that  this 
institution  was  founded  in  1732,  but  if  one  refers  to  the 
original  documents  he  will  find  that  the  institution 
founded  in  that  year  is  always  referred  to  as  the  "  poor- 
house,"  and  that  the  only  sense  in  which  the  term  hos- 
pital can  be  applied  to  it  is  that  it  possessed  an  infirmary 
for  such  of  the  poor  as  were  insane  or  required  more 
careful  medical  treatment  than  could  be  given  them  if 
in  the  same  quarters  with  the  other  paupers. 

The  best  proof,  however,  exists  in  the  petition  which 

^  In  the  subsequent  account  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  practi- 
cally all  the  matter  is  derived  from  Dr.  T.  G.  Morton's  "  History  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,"  published  in  1895  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Board  of  Managers  and  the  contributors  to  the  Hospital. 
Dr.  Morton  has  gathered  together  every  fact  relating  to  the  Hos- 
pital's history,  and  has  reprinted  many  of  the  original  documents 
which  bear  upon  it.  So  thoroughly  has  he  covered  the  ground  that 
any  one  now  writing  on  the  subject  can  only  hope  to  present  in  a 
condensed  form  what  Dr.  Morton  gives  in  such  abundance. 

21 


322  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

was  presented  to  the  Assembly  of  Pennsylvania  on  Janu- 
ary 23,  1750-51,  which  led  to  the  founding  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital : 

"  To  THE  HONOURABLE  HoUSE  OF   REPRESENTATIVES   OF  THE   PROVINCE 

OF  Pennsylvania. 

"  The  Petition  of  sundry  Inhabitants  of  the  said  Province  Hum- 
bly shevi^eth, 

"  That  vv^ith  the  Number  of  People,  the  number  of  Lunatics  or 
Persons  distempered  in  Mind  and  deprived  of  their  rational  Fac- 
ulties, hath  greatly  encreased  in  this  Province. 

"  That  some  of  them  going  at  large  are  a  Terror  to  their  Neigh- 
bors, who  are  daily  apprehensive  of  the  Violences  they  may  commit; 
And  others,  are  continually  wasting  their  Substance,  to  the  great  In- 
jury of  themselves  and  Families,  ill  disposed  Persons  wickedly 
taking  Advantage  of  their  unhappy  Condition,  and  drawing  them  into 
unreasonable  Bargains,  &c. 

"  That  few  or  none  of  them  are  so  sensible  of  their  Condition,  as 
to  submit  voluntarily  to  the  Treatment  their  respective  Cases  re- 
quire, and  therefore  continue  in  the  same  deplorable  State  during 
their  Lives ;  whereas  it  has  been  found,  by  the  Experience  of  many 
Years,  that  above  two  Thirds  of  the  Mad  People  received  into 
Bethlehem  Hospital,  and  there  treated  properly,  have  been  perfectly 
cured. 

"  Your  Petitioners  beg  Leave  farther  to  represent,  that  tho'  the 
good  Laws  of  this  Province  have  made  many  compassionate  and 
charitable  Provisions  for  the  Relief  of  the  Poor,  yet  something 
farther  seems  wanting  in  Favour  of  such,  whose  Poverty  is  made 
more  miserable  by  the  additional  Weight  of  a  grievous  Disease, 
from  which  they  might  easily  be  relieved,  if  they  were  not  situated 
at  too  great  a  Distance  from  regular  Advice  and  Assistance; 
whereby  many  languish  out  their  Lives,  tortur'd  perhaps  with  the 
Stone,  devour'd  by  the  Cancer,  deprived  of  Sight  by  Cataracts,  or 
gradually  decaying  by  loathsome  Distempers ;  who,  if  the  Expence 
in  the  present  manner  of  Nursing  and  Attending  them  separately 
when  they  come  to  Town  were  not  so  discouraging,  might  again, 
by  the  judicious  Assistance  of  Physic  and  Surgery,  be  enabled  to 
taste  the  Blessing  of  Health,  and  be  made  in  a  few  Weeks,  useful 
Members  of  the  Community,  able  to  provide  for  themselves  and 
Families. 

"  The  kind  Care  our  Assemblies  have  heretofore  taken  for  the 
Relief  of  sick  and  distempered  Strangers,  by  providing  a  Place  for 
their  Reception  and  Accommodation,  leaves  us  no  Room  to  doubt 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES. 


2>^Z 


their  showing  an  equal  tender  Concern  for  the  Inhabitants.  And 
we  hope  they  will  be  of  Opinion  with  us,  that  a  small  Provincial 
Hospital,  erected  and  put  under  proper  Regulations,  in  the  Care 
of  Persons  to  be  appointed  by  this  House,  or  otherwise,  as  they 
shall  think  meet,  with  Power  to  receive  and  apply  the  charitable 
Benefactions  of  good  People  towards  enlarging  and  supporting  the 
same,  and  some  other  Provisions  in  a  Law  for  the  Purposes  above 
mentioned,  will  be  a  good  Work,  acceptable  to  God  and  to  all  the 
good  People  they  represent. 

"  We  therefore  humbly  recommend  the  Premises  to  their  serious 
consideration. 


'  A.   Morris,  Jun. 
JoNA.  Evans 
Joseph  Shippen 
John  Inglis 
Reese  Meredith 
Jos.  Richardson 
Jos.  Sims 
Edward  Cathrall 
Amos  Strettell 
John  Armitt 
Jos'h  Fisher 


Nath'l  Allen 
Wm.  Coleman 
Wm.  Atwood 
Anth.  Morris 
Thos.  Graeme 
John  Mifflin 
Geo.  Spotford 
John  Reynell 
Chas.  Norris 
William  Griffitts 
Samuel  Smith 


S.  Shoemaker 
Samul.  Sansom 
Saml.  Hazard 
Wm.  Plumsted 
Luke  Morris 
Stephen  Armitt 
Samuel  Rhoads 
Will.  Branson 
Israel  Pemberton 
Joshua  Crosby 
Will.  Allen." 


This  petition  was  composed  by  Benjamin  Franklin, 
and  in  his  "  Brief  Account  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hos- 
pital," in  describing  how  it  came  to  be  drawn  up,  he 
says, — 

"  About  the  end  of  the  year  1750,  some  Persons,  who  had  fre- 
quent Opportunities  of  observing  the  distress  of  such  distemper'd 
Poor  as  from  Time  to  Time  came  to  Philadelphia,  for  the  Advice 
and  Assistance  of  the  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  that  City;  how 
difficult  it  was  for  them  to  procure  suitable  Lodgings,  and  other 
conveniences  proper  for  their  respective  cases,  and  how  expensive 
the  Providing  good  and  careful  Nurses,  and  other  Attendants,  for 
want  thereof,  many  must  suffer  greatly,  and  some  probably  perish, 
that  might  otherwise  have  been  restored  to  Health  and  Comfort, 
and  become  useful  to  themselves,  their  Families,  and  the  Publick, 
for  many  years  after;  and  considering  moreover,  that  even  the 
poor  inhabitants  of  this  city,  tho'  they  had  homes,  yet  were  therein 
but  badly  accommodated  in  Sickness,  and  could  not  be  so  well  and 
easily  taken  Care  of  in  their  Separate  Habitations,  as  they  might 
be  in  one  convenient  House,  under  one  Inspection,  and  in  the  hands 


324 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


of  skilful  Practitioners ;  and  several  of  the  Inhabitants  of  the 
Province,  who  unhappily  became  disordered  in  their  Senses,  wan- 
dered about,  to  the  terrour  of  their  Neighbours,  there  being  no 
place  (except  the  House  of  Correction  or  Almshouse)  in  which 
they  might  be  confined,  and  subjected  to  proper  treatment  for  their 
Recovery,  and  that  House  was  by  no  means  fitted  for  such  Pur- 
poses; did  charitably  consult  together,  and  confer  with  their 
Friends  and  Acquaintances,  on  the  best  means  of  relieving  the 
Distressed,  under  those  Circumstances ;  and  an  Infirmary,  or  Hos- 
pital, being  proposed,  was  so  generally  approved,  that  there  was 
reason  to  expect  a  considerable  Subscription  from  the  Inhabitants 
of  this  City,  towards  the  support  of  such  a  hospital." 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  Philadelphia  Almshouse 
possessed  a  medical  staff,  and  that  this  entitled  it  to  the 
name  of  hospital,  but  the  duties  of  these  physicians  were 
not  those  of  a  hospital  staff,  but  merely  involved  their 
looking  after  the  condition  of  such  paupers  as  might  be 
ill.  The  first  record  of  any  medical  appointment  to  the 
Almshouse  is  found  on  the  i8th  of  May,  1769,  when 
Drs.  Cadwalader  Evans  and  Thomas  Bond  were  "  re- 
elected," at  a  salary  of  fifty  pounds  a  year,  out  of  which 
they  were  required  to  furnish  such  medicines  to  the  in- 
mates as  might  be  needed. 

But  the  most  conclusive  proof  is  to  be  found  in  the 
following  narrative,  which  I  give  verbatim  from  Mor- 
ton's "  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital."  To  my 
mind  it  settles  the  question  beyond  cavil  that  the  Phila- 
delphia Almshouse  was  not,  properly  speaking,  at  that 
time  of  its  existence  a  hospital,  and  consequently  the 
Pennsylvania  Hospital  is  justly  entitled  to  be  termed  the 
oldest  hospital  in  the  United  States. 

"At  an  early  date,  July  22,  1781,  the  Managers  of  the  Philadelphia 
City  Almshouse  and  House  of  Employment  requested  '  that  their 
sick  Paupers  may  be  occasionally  admitted  into  the  Hospital  as 
pay  patients  at  the  rate  of  a  Spanish  mill'd  dollar  per  week.'  The 
Hospital's  Managers  agreed  at  the  rate  of  a  dollar  and  one-third 
said  specie,  and  subsequently  it  was  agreed  to  receive  them  for  ten 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  325 

shillings  per  week.  On  May  28,  1787,  the  rate  was  reduced  to  eight 
shillings  and  four  pence ;  the  Almshouse  being  at  this  time  indebted 
to  the  Hospital  £648.  It  was  then  requested  that  the  rate  of  board 
be  reduced,  which,  being  considered  by  the  Hospital  Managers, 
they  declined  to  make  any  alteration  for  the  present  in  the  price 
or  terms  of  admission.  On  December  7,  1789,  it  was  found  that  on 
'  June  1st  last  the  Almshouse  was  in  debt  to  the  Hospital,  for 
maintenance  of  their  sick  i945,  los.,  which  being  placed  in  Attor- 
ney's hands  for  collection,  a  trial  was  obtained  on  February  12, 
1791,  when  the  Almshouse  Managers,  finding  the  evidence  submitted 
proved  they  had  contracted  to  pay  at  the  rates  and  prices  debited 
to  them,  admitted  the  equity  of  the  account  and  consented  that 
a  verdict  should  be  given  for  £1014  due  February  24,  1790'  The 
point  at  issue  was  the  objection  of  the  Almshouse  to  the  legality  of 
the  Hospital  charging  for  the  board  of  patients  who  were  residents 
of  Pennsylvania,  alleging  that  the  hospital  funds  were  exclusively 
intended  for  that  description  of  people,  and  that  the  Hospital  had 
no  right  to  take  foreigners  on  charity,  or  the  inhabitants  of  other 
States.  The  matter  was  fully  argued  before  the  Court,  but  not 
finally  decided  on,  the  Court  being  adjourned  to  the  3d  of  the 
following  March.  '  The  managers  had  reason  to  believe  it  would 
be  determined  liberally  in  their  favor  as  they  have  a  right  to  con- 
sider all  persons  meeting  with  casualities  in  the  Roads  or  Streets, 
or  perishing  with  sickness  in  the  State,  as  the  poor  of  Pennsyl- 
vania without  exception ;  but  if  they  are  immediately  sent  from  the 
neighboring  State  for  the  express  purpose  of  being  supported  in 
the  hospital  they  ought  not  to  be  admitted.' 

"  On  April  20,  1799,  the  Managers  informed  the  Almshouse  au- 
thorities they  had  room  for  six  patients ;  if  they  had  any  diseased 
persons  in  their  House,  whom  the  physicians  of  the  Hospital  should 
think  proper  subjects,  they  would  willingly  receive  them  without 
pay.  The  Almshouse  Managers  acceded  to  the  proposition  with 
delight,  in  the  hope  that  their  maniacs  would  be  selected,  which 
was  not  the  proposition  of  the  Hospital.  The  matter  led  to  corre- 
spondence and  several  conferences ;  the  Hospital  Committee  fully 
explained  to  the  Almshouse  Managers  the  reason  why  they  could 
not  admit  their  poor  patients  in  the  manner  and  upon  the  unreason- 
able terms  which  they  had  proposed.  It  was  finally  agreed  that 
the  Managers  of  the  Hospital  should  consider,  and  make  known, 
the  lowest  rate  at  which  the  sick  patients  of  the  Almshouse  would 
be  received  into  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.  On  December  19,  1801, 
they  submitted  the  following:  '  ist,  The  Hospital  will  take  from 
the  managers  of  the  Almshouse  all  such  pay  cases  as  the  hospital 
physicians  consider  as  proper  cases  to  be  received  therein  at  225 


326  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

cents  per  week.  2d,  That  all  their  pay  patients  who  are  now  in  the 
house  shall  be  charged  at  the  same  price.  3d,  the  accounts  shall  be 
settled  at  the  end  of  every  3  months.  4,  If  the  foregoing  proposals 
are  not  agreed  to,  the  terms  of  admission  shall  not  be  altered  from 
three  dollars  a  week  until  further  order  is  taken  thereon.' 

"  On  December  28,  1801,  the  Managers  of  the  Almshouse  made 
answer  that  they  could  not  agree  to  the  proposal,  but  it  was  prob- 
able that  a  conference  would  remove  the  impediments.  At  a  con- 
ference, held  January  12,  1802,  the  objections  made  to  the  pro- 
posals of  the  Hospital  Managers  were  considered  and  removed 
with  exception  of  the  first,  for  which  the  Almshouse  Committee 
prepared  the  following  substitute :  '  Resolved  that  the  Managers  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  will  take  from  the  Managers  of  the 
Almshouse  all  their  lunatics  and  such  other  pay  patients  as  may 
be  considered  curable  cases  and  proper  for  admission  into  the  said 
Hospital  (agreeable  to  its  Rules)  at  225  cents  per  week  for  each 
of  them  for  one  year.' 

"  The  Almshouse  Committee  also  proposed  to  the  Managers  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  '  that  they  shall  cause  to  be  attended 
all  their  Patients  who  may  be  in  the  Almshouse,  by  the  Hospital 
Physicians,  gratis ;  and  that  they  shall  be  supplied  with  medicines 
except  liquors  at  the  expense  of  the  Hospital.' 

"  On  January  25,  1802,  all  conference  on  the  subject  was  termi- 
nated by  a  minute  of  the  Almshouse  board,  that  they  '  are  of  opinion 
it  will  not  be  advisable  to  remove  the  sick  from  this  house  to  the 
Hospital  upon  the  terms  proposed  by  the  Managers  of  that  In- 
stitution inasmuch  as  it  will  occasion  a  very  great  and  as  we  con- 
ceive unjustifiable  increase  of  our  expenses.'  On  January  31,  1803, 
a  communication  was  received  from  the  Almshouse  board  request- 
ing a  conference  with  the  Managers  of  the  Hospital  on  the  admis- 
sion of  Paupers  into  said  Hospital  and  asking  the  appointment  of 
a  committee  of  conference.  A  conference  was  held  Feb.  28,  1803, 
•when  the  Almshouse  Committee  submitted  the  following  minute 
containing  the  objections  of  the  Guardians  of  the  Poor  to  the  terms 
of  admission  for  their  sick  patients,  viz. :  '  Whereas  it  has  been 
Customary  for  the  Managers  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  to  admit 
diseased  paupers  into  their  house  for  cure,  provided  the  Guardians 
of  the  Poor  will  engage  to  furnish  them  with  Cloathes  and  pay 
funeral  expenses  in  case  of  their  death,  and  such  engagements  in- 
volve the  Guardians  in  unnecessary,  and  in  case  of  non-residents 
perhaps  in  unjustifiable,  Expense  and  at  the  same  time  swell  the 
account  of  the  Guardians  while  the  whole  credit  results  to  the 
Managers  of  the  Hospital.  Resolved  that  in  Future  No  Guardian 
sign  Such  engagement  to  the  Hospital.'    The  Almshouse  Committee 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  327 

was  informed  of  the  reasons  upon  which  the  rules  for  the  admis- 
sion of  Paupers  into  the  Hospital  were  founded  and  the  difficulty 
there  would  be  in  procuring  an  alteration  thereof ;  and  that  the 
Guardians  could  derive  little  or  no  benefit  from  the  proposed  altera- 
tions, inasmuch  as  clothing  and  burying  their  patients  at  the  expense 
of  the  Hospital  would  only  lessen  the  fund  that  supported  their 
own  poor  —  as  they  appeared  to  be  convinced  with  the  reasons 
assigned,  the  conference  adjourned.  The  Almshouse  board  re- 
scinded this  minute  and  then  adopted  the  following :  '  that  in  cases 
where  nothing  further  is  required  than  furnishing  Cloaths  and 
defraying  funeral  Expenses  it  will  be  proper  for  the  Guardians  to 
sign  the  Engagement,  due  attention  being  previously  paid  to  the 
Applicant  being  a  Residenter.' " 

As  Dr.  Morton  says,  this  effectually  disposes  of  the 
claim  that  what  we  now  know  as  the  Philadelphia  Hos- 
pital, or  Blockley  Almshouse,  is  the  oldest  hospital  in 
the  United  States: 

"  Because  it  now  exists  in  connection  with  the  Philadelphia 
Almshouse,  it  cannot  be  admitted  that  it  was  so  from  the  begin- 
ning, or  that  its  organization  dates  back  to  the  establishment  of 
the  first  City  Almshouse  in  1730-31." 

Morton  traces  back  the  history  of  the  efforts  made  to 
establish  a  hospital  in  Pennsylvania  as  far  as  the  year 
1709,  quoting  from  the  records  of  Friends'  Monthly 
Meeting  at  Philadelphia  on  September  25,  1709,  the 
following : 

"  Thomas  Griffith  is  ordered  to  pay  to  Edward  Shippen  to  the 
value  of  Eight  Pounds  Sterling  when  there  is  stock  in  his  hand^. 
towards  defraying  the  charges  of  negotiating  matters  in  England 
in  relation  to  the  School  Charter  and  one  that  is  endeavoured  to  be 
obtained  for  an  Hospital,  according  to  the  agreement  and  concur- 
rence of  the  Meeting  some  time  past,  and  was  accordingly  to  send 
over  by  Isaac  Norris  to  request  of  Gov.  Penn  who  was  willing  to 
grant  the  same ;  but  upon  advice  thought  it  proper  to  have  the 
School  and  Hospital  in  one  which  this  meeting  desires  may  be 
moved  again  by  James  Logan,  who  is  now  going  over  to  England." 

Nothing  further  appears  to  have  been  done  in  the  mat- 
ter for  many  years,  certainly  no  practical  result  came  of 


328  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

it  until  the  middle  of  the  century.  The  credit  of  origi- 
nating the  efforts  which  finally  caused  the  foundation  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  belongs  to  Dr.  Thomas  Bond, 
a  man  prominent  in  his  profession  and  in  the  community. 
He  was  born  in  1712,  and  besides  his  enterprise  in  found- 
ing the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  establishment  of  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  now  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  the  originator  of 
the  Bond  splint  for  the  treatment  of  fractures  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  radius,  and  he  also  invented  an  instru- 
ment for  extracting  foreign  bodies  from  the  oesophagus. 
It  has  been  asserted  that  Benjamin  Franklin  was  the 
founder  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  but  in  his  "Auto- 
biography" Franklin  magnanimously  gives  the  full  credit 
to  Dr.  Bond  in  the  following  narrative  of  the  way  in 
which  he  came  to  be  concerned  in  it : 

"  In  1751,  Dr.  Thomas  Bond,  a  particular  friend  of  mine,  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  establishing  a  hospital  in  Philadelphia,  (a  very 
beneficent  design,  which  has  been  ascribed  to  me,  but  was  origi- 
nally and  truly  his,)  for  the  reception  and  cure  of  poor  sick 
persons,  whether  inhabitants  of  the  province,  or  strangers.  He 
was  zealous  and  active  in  endeavouring  to  procure  subscriptions 
for  it;  but  the  proposal  being  a  novelty  in  America,  and  at  first 
not  well  understood,  he  met  but  with  little  success.  At  length  he 
came  to  me  with  the  compliment,  that  he  found  there  was  no  such 
a  thing  as  carrying  a  public-spirited  project  through  without  me 
being  concerned  in  it.  '  For,'  said  he,  '  I  am  often  asked  by  those 
to  whom  I  propose  subscribing,  Have  you  consulted  Franklin  on  this 
business?  And  what  does  he  think  of  it.'  I  inquired  into  the 
nature  and  probable  utility  of  the  scheme,  and  receiving  from  him 
a  very  satisfactory  explanation,  I  not  only  subscribed  to  it  myself, 
but  engaged  heartily  in  the  design  of  procuring  subscriptions  from 
others ;  previous  however  to  the  solicitation,  I  endeavoured  to 
prepare  the  minds  of  the  people,  by  writing  on  the  subject  in  the 
newspapers,  which  was  my  usual  custom  in  such  cases,  but  which 
Dr.  Bond  had  omitted.  The  subscriptions  afterwards  were  more 
free  and  generous ;  but  beginning  to  flag,  I  saw  they  would  be 
insufficient,  without  some  assistance  from  the  assembly,  and  there- 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  329 

fore  proposed  to  petition  for  it;  which  was  done.  The  country 
members  did  not  at  first  relish  the  project;  they  objected  that  it 
could  only  be  serviceable  to  the  city,  and  therefore  the  citizens  alone 
should  be  at  the  expense  of  it,  and  they  doubted  whether  the  citi- 
zens themselves  generally  approved  of  it.  My  allegation  on  the 
contrary,  that  it  met  with  such  approbation  as  to  leave  no  doubt 
of  our  being  able  to  raise  two  thousand  pounds  by  voluntary  dona- 
tions, they  considered  as  a  most  extravagant  supposition,  and  utterly 
impossible.  On  this  I  formed  my  plan ;  and  asking  leave  to  bring 
in  a  bill  for  incorporating  the  contributors  according  to  the  prayer 
of  their  petition,  and  granting  them  a  blank  sum  of  money;  which 
leave  was  obtained  chiefly  on  the  consideration,  that  the  house  could 
throw  the  bill  out  if  they  did  not  like  it,  I  drew  it  so  as  to  make 
the  important  clause  a  conditional  one,  viz. :  '  And  be  it  enacted  by 
the  authority  aforesaid,  that  when  the  said  contributors  shall  have 
met  and  chosen  their  managers  and  treasurer,  and  shall  have  raised 
by  their  contributions  a  capital  stock  of  two  thousand  pounds  value, 
(the  yearly  interest  of  which  is  to  be  applied  to  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  sick  poor  in  the  said  hospital,  and  of  charge  for  diet, 
attendance,  advice,  and  medicine,)  and  shall  make  the  same  appear 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  speaker  of  the  Assembly  for  the  time 
being;  that  then  it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for  the  said  speaker, 
and  he  is  hereby  required  to  sign  an  order  on  the  provincial  treasurer, 
for  the  payment  of  two  thousand  pounds  in  two  yearly  payments, 
to  the  treasurer  of  the  said  hospital,  to  be  applied  to  the  founding, 
building  and  furnishing  of  the  same.'  This  condition  carried  the 
bill  through ;  for  the  members  who  had  opposed  the  grant,  and 
now  conceived  they  might  have  the  credit  of  being  charitable  with- 
out the  expense,  agreed  to  its  passage ;  and  then  in  soliciting  sub- 
scriptions among  the  people;  we  urged  the  conditional  promise  of 
the  law  as  an  additional  motive  to  give,  since  every  man's  dona- 
tion would  be  doubled ;  thus  the  clause  worked  both  ways.  The 
subscriptions  accordingly  soon  exceeded  the  requisite  sum,  and  we 
claimed  and  received  the  public  gift,  which  enabled  us  to  carry  the 
design  into  execution.  A  convenient  and  handsome  building  was 
soon  erected,  the  institution  has  by  constant  experience  been  found 
useful,  and  flourishes  to  this  day;  and  I  do  not  remember  any  of 
my  political  manoeuvres,  the  success  of  which  at  the  time  gave  me 
more  pleasure ;  or,  wherein,  after  thinking  of  it,  I  more  easily 
excused  myself  of  having  made  some  use  of  cunning." 

Morton  quotes  Franklin's  account  of  the  way  in  which 
the  charter  was  finally  obtained : 


330  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

"  On  the  second  reading  of  the  Petition,  January  29,  1751,  the 
House  gave  leave  to  the  Petitioners  to  bring  in  a  Bill,  which  was 
read  the  First  Time  on  the  first  of  February.  For  some  time  it 
was  doubtful  whether  the  Bill  would  not  miscarry,  many  of  the 
Members  not  readily  conceiving  the  Necessity  or  Usefulness  of  the 
design;  and  apprehending  moreover,  that  the  Expense  of  paying 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  would  eat  up  the  whole  of  any  Fund 
that  could  be  raised ;  but  three  of  the  members  of  the  Medical 
Profession,  viz :  Doctors  Lloyd  Zachary,  Thomas  Bond,  and  Phineas 
Bond,  generously  offering  to  attend  the  Hospital  gratis  for  three 
years,  and  the  other  Objections  being  by  degrees  got  over,  the 
Bill,  on  the  seventh  of  the  same  Month,  passed  the  House,  Nemine 
Contradicente,  and  on  the  nth  of  May  following  it  received  the 
Governor's  approval." 

The  first  president  of  the  Board  of  Managers  was 
Joshua  Crosby,  and  the  first  clerk  Benjamin  FrankHn. 

The  board  applied  to  the  Proprietaries,  Thomas  and 
Richard  Penn,  for  a  grant  of  land  on  which  to  build,  and 
Morton  gives  a  number  of  interesting  letters  bearing  on 
this  subject  which  passed  between  the  Managers,  the 
Penns,  and  Governor  Hamilton.  It  would  appear  from 
these  that  the  Penns  offered  them  a  lot  which  was  part 
of  some  ground  which  had  already  been  laid  apart  on  the 
city  plan  for  public  purposes,  and  the  offer  was  coupled 
with  the  condition  that  if  the  scheme  of  the  Hos- 
pital failed  in  execution  the  land  should  revert  to  the 
ownership  of  the  Penns.  There  were  some  brick-yards 
and  swamps  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  site 
proposed  for  the  Hospital.  The  Managers  with  great  wis- 
dom refused  this  offer,  partly  because  of  the  unhealth- 
fulness  of  the  proximity  of  swamps,  but  chiefly  because 
they  were  public-spirited  enough  to  see  that  if  they  ac- 
cepted the  grant  of  this  land  which  had  already  been 
given  to  the  city,  especially  when  the  gift  to  them  was 
accompanied  by  the  reversionary  clause,  they  would 
acknowledge  the  right  of  the  Penns  to  make  grants  of 


Dk.  Phineas  Bond. 


I)K.     I.I.OVIi    /.ACMAkV. 
(I-'rom  Mortdii's  "History  of  llit-  I'eiiiis>  Kaiiia  Hospital.") 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  331 

land  already  definitely  devoted  to  public  purposes.  Hav- 
ing thus  refused  to  accept  the  gift  of  a  site  on  which  to 
build,  the  Managers  rented  a  house  on  the  south  side  of 
Market  Street  (then  High)  below  Seventh,  which  had 
belonged  to  the  lately  deceased  Judge  John  Kinsey,  and 
on  February  6,  1752,  inserted  an  advertisement  in  the 
Gazette  that  the  Hospital  was  ready  to  receive  patients. 

In  the  previous  month  they  had  drawn  up  the  follow- 
ing set  of  rules  governing  patients :  ^ 

"  Rules  agreed  to  by  the  managers  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
for  the  admission  and  discharge  of  Patients 

"  First,  That  no  patients  shall  be  admitted  whose  cases  are 
judged  incurable,  lunaticks  excepted;  nor  any  whose  cases  do  not 
require  the  particular  conveniences  of  a  Hospital. 

"  Secondly,  that  no  person,  having  the  small  pox,  itch,  or  other 
infectious  distempers,  shall  be  admitted,  until  there  are  proper  apart- 
ments prepared  for  the  reception  of  such  as  are  afflicted  with  those 
diseases ;  and  if  any  such  persons  should  be  inadvertently  admitted, 
they  shall  forthwith  be  discharged. 

"  Thirdly,  That  women  having  young  children  shall  not  be  re- 
ceived, unless  their  children  are  taken  care  of  elsewhere,  that  the 
Hospital  may  not  be  burthened  with  the  maintenance  of  such 
children,  nor  the  patients  disturbed  with  their  noise. 

"  Fourthly,  That  all  persons  desirous  of  being  admitted  into  the 
Hospital  (not  inhabitants  of  Philadelphia)  must,  before  they  leave 
their  abode,  have  their  cases  drawn  up  in  a  plain  manner,  and 
sent  to  the  managers,  together  with  a  certificate  from  a  justice  of 
the  peace,  and  the  overseer  or  overseers  of  the  poor  of  the  township 
in  which  they  reside,  that  they  have  gained  a  residence  in  such 
township,  and  are  unable  to  pay  for  medicines  and  attendance,  to 
which  an  answer  shall  speedily  be  returned,  informing  them  whether 
and  when  they  may  be  admitted.  All  persons  employed  in  drawing 
up  their  cases,  are  desired  to  be  particular  in  enumerating  the 
symptoms,  and  to  mention  the  patient's  age,  sex,  and  place  of 
abode,  with  the  distance  from  the  city  of  Philadelphia. 

"  Fifthly,  That  all  persons  who  have  thus  obtained  a  letter  of 

'  Some  Account  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital ;  from  its  First 
Rise  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Fifth  Month,  called  May,  1754.  Phila- 
delphia, 1817. 


332 


THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


license  to  be  received  into  the  Hospital,  must  be  there  at  the  time 
mentioned  for  their  reception,  and  bring  with  them  that  letter,  and 
must  likewise  deposit  in  the  hands  of  the  treasurer  so  much  money, 
or  give  such  security  as  shall  be  mentioned  in  their  respective 
letters  of  license,  to  indemnify  the  Hospital  either  from  the  expense 
of  burial,  in  case  they  die,  or  to  defray  the  expense  of  carrying 
them  back  to  their  place  of  abode,  and  that  they  may  not  become 
a  charge  to  the  city. 

"  Sixthly,  If  several  persons,  not  excluded  by  the  preceding 
exceptions  be  received,  without  exceeding  the  number  allowed  by 
the  managers  to  be  entertained  at  one  time  in  the  Hospital,  the 
preference  will  be  given,  when  the  cases  are  equally  urgent,  first 
to  such  as  are  recommended  by  one  or  more  of  the  contributors, 
members  of  this  corporation,  residing  in  the  township  to  which 
the  poor  persons  belong;  secondly  to  those  who  stand  first  in  the 
list  of  applications;  but  if  some  cases  are  urgent,  and  others  can 
admit  of  delay,  those  with  the  most  urgent  symptoms  shall  be 
preferred. 

"  Seventhly,  Notwithstanding  such  letters  of  license,  if  it  shall 
appear  by  a  personal  examination  of  any  of  the  patients,  that  their 
cases  are  misrepresented,  and  that  they  are  improper  subjects  of 
the  Hospital,  the  managers  shall  have  the  power  of  refusing  them 
admission. 

"  Eighthly,  That  at  least  one  bed  shall  be  provided  for  accidents 
that  require  immediate  relief. 

"  Ninthly,  That  if  there  shall  be  room  in  the  Hospital  to  spare, 
after  as  many  poor  patients  are  accommodated  as  the  interest  of 
the  capital  stock  can  support,  the  managers  shall  have  the  liberty 
of  taking  in  other  patients,  at  such  reasonable  rates  as  they  can 
agree  for;  and  the  profits  arising  from  boarding  and  nursing  such 
patients,  shall  be  appropriated  to  the  same  uses  as  the  interest-money 
of  the  publick  stock.  Provided  that  no  such  person,  under  pre- 
tence of  coming  to  board  in  the  Hospital,  shall  be  admitted,  unless, 
on  the  first  application  made  on  his  behalf,  a  certificate  be  pro- 
duced from  the  overseer  or  overseers  of  the  poor  of  the  town- 
ship in  which  he  lives,  of  his  having  gained  a  residence  in  the 
said  township ;  and  unless  sufificient  security  be  given  to  the  man- 
agers to  indemnify  the  city  and  Hospital  from  all  charges  and 
expenses  whatsoever,  occasioned  by  his  removing  hither. 

"  Tenthly,  That  those  who  are  taken  into  the  Hospital  at  a  pri- 
vate expense,  may  employ  any  physician  or  surgeons  they  desire. 

"  Eleventhly,  That  all  persons  who  have  been  admitted  into  the 
Hospital,  shall  be  discharged  as  soon  as  they  are  cured,  or,  after 
a  reasonable  time  of  trial,  are  judged  incurable. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  333 

''  Twelfthly,  That  all  persons  when  cured,  sign  a  certificate  of 
their  particular  cases,  and  of  the  benefit  they  have  received  in  this 
Hospital,  to  be  either  published  or  otherwise  disposed  of,  as  the 
managers  may  think  proper. 

"  Thirteenthly,  That  no  patient  go  out  of  the  Hospital  without 
leave  from  one  of  the  physicians  or  surgeons,  first  signified  to  the 
matron.  That  they  do  not  swear,  curse,  get  drunk,  behave  rudely 
or  indecently,  on  pain  of  expulsion  after  the  first  admonition. 

"  Fourteenthly,  That  no  patient  presume  to  play  at  cards,  dice, 
or  any  other  game  within  the  Hospital,  or  to  beg  any  where  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  on  pain  of  being  discharged  for  irregularity. 

"  Fifteenthly,  That  such  patients  as  are  able,  shall  assist  in  nursing 
others,   washing  and  ironing  the  linen,   washing  and  cleaning  the 
rooms,  and  such  other  services  as  the  matron  shall  require. 
"  The  foregoing  rules  were 
agreed  to  by  a  board  of  managers  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Hospital,  the  twenty-third 
day  of  the  first  month  (January)   1752 

"  Benjamin  Franklin,  Clerk 

"  We  do  approve  the  foregoing  rules 
"  William  Allen,  Chief  Justice 

Isaac  Norris,  Speaker  of  the  Assembly. 
Tench  Francis,  Attorney-General." 

On  October  23,  1751,  "Dr.  Lloyd  Zachary  and  Drs. 
Thomas  and  Phineas  Bond  signified  their  willingness  to 
give  their  attendance  Gratis  in  taking  care  of  the  sick 
as  Physicians  and  Surgeons  for  the  First  three  years." 
The  board  accepted  their  offer,  and  resolved  to  request 
"  Drs.  Graeme,  Cadwalader,  Moore,  and  Redman  to 
assist  in  consultations  on  extraordinary  cases."  At  the 
same  meeting  Morton  tells  us  the  following  resolution 
was  adopted,  but  he  thinks  was  never  carried  into  effect : 

"  Resolved,  That  the  Physicians  of  the  Hospital,  or  such  Practi- 
tioners as  are  to  perform  Operations  shall  first  give  demonstration 
of  their  Skill  and  Abilities  in  Anatomy,  Operations,  Dressings,  and 
Bandaging  before  the  Managers  and  such  others  as  the  Managers 
may  think  fit  to  join  with  themselves  to  assist  in  judging  of  the 
performance  of  such  Practitioners.  That  this  resolve  be  recom- 
mended  to   the   first   General    Meeting  of   the   Contributors   to   be 


334 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


passed  into  a  law  as  a  matter  of  the  highest  consequence  for  the 
safety  of  the  Poor  Patients  and  the  Reputation  of  the  Hospital." 

The  following  regulations,  however,  were  adopted,  and 
apparently  faithfully  observed : 

"  Rules  to  be  observed  in  the  choice  of  the  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  to  limit  and  appoint  their 
number,  authority  and  duty,  and  to  raise  a  Fund  for  supplying 
the  said  Hospital  with  Medicines. 

"  Imprimis,  The  managers  of  the  said  Hospital  shall,  within  ten 
days  after  the  first  meeting  in  the  month  called  May,  yearly,  choose 
six  practitioners  in  physick  and  surgery,  to  visit  and  take  care  of 
the  patients  in  the  said  Hospital,  and  the  other  practitioners  (who 
are  at  this  time  members  of  this  corporation)  shall  have  the  privi- 
lege of  attending  and  observing  the  practice  of  those  chosen  for  the 
service  of  the  year. 

"  Secondly,  the  practitioners  chosen  shall  give  their  attendance  at 
such  times,  and  in  such  manner,  and  be  classed  with  each  other, 
as  shall  be  concluded  and  agreed  upon  by  the  managers  and  practi- 
tioners. 

"  Thirdly,  Upon  extraordinary  cases,  the  practitioners  in  attend- 
ance shall  call  in  two  or  more  of  the  practitioners  chosen  for  the 
service  of  the  year,  to  consult  with  them. 

"  Fourthly,  In  all  such  cases,  which  will  admit  of  time  for  de- 
liberation, all  the  six  practitioners,  chosen  for  the  service  of  the 
year,  shall  have  timely  notice  thereof. 

"  Fifthly,  If  any  practitioner  be  removed  by  the  managers  for 
neglect  of  duty,  or  any  other  cause,  or  shall  die,  in  that  case  the 
managers  shall  choose  another  practitioner  (who  is  a  member  of  this 
corporation)  to  supply  his  place. 

"  Sixthly,  Each  apprentice  or  other  student  the  practitioners 
shall  introduce  to  see  the  practice  of  the  Hospital,  shall  pay  one 
English  guinea,  or  thirty-four  shillings,  current  money,  per  year,  to 
be  laid  out  in  medicines,  or  such  other  manner  as  the  managers 
think  most  proper. 

"  Seventhly,  No  practitioner,  during  the  term  for  which  he  is 
chosen  to  serve  the  Hospital,  shall  act  as  a  manager. 

"Eighthly,  The  practitioners  shall  keep  a  fair  account  (in  a 
book  provided  for  that  purpose)  of  the  several  patients  under  their 
care,  of  the  disorders  they  labour  under,  and  shall  enter  in  the  said 
book  the  recipes  or  prescriptions  they  make  for  each  of  them. 

Ninthly,  No  person  shall  be  received  hereafter  as  a  candidate  to 
be  employed  in  the  said  Hospital,  as  a  physician  or  surgeon  until 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  335 

he  be  a  member  of  this  corporation,  and  of  the  age  of  twenty  seven 
years,  hath  served  a  regular  apprenticeship  in  this  city  or  suburbs, 
hath  studied  physick  or  surgery  seven  years  or  more,  and  hath 
undergone  an  examination  of  six  of  the  practitioners  of  the  Hospital, 
in  the  presence  of  the  managers,  and  is  approved  of  by  them;  and 
with  respect  to  strangers,  they  shall  have  resided  three  years  or 
more  in  this  city,  and  shall  be  examined  and  approved  of  in  the 
manner,  and  under  the  restrictions  aforesaid. 

"  Tenthly,  These  rules  shall  continue  in  force  two  years,  and 
from  thence  to  the  time  of  the  next  general  meeting  of  the  con- 
tributors, and  no  longer. 

"  The  foregoing  rules  were  agreeed  to  at 

a  general  meeting  of  the  contributors 

to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  the  sixth 

day  of  April,  1752,  and  three  times 

read,  and  ordered  to  be  engrossed ; 

and  at  a  meeting  of  the 

contributors  on  the  thirteenth  day 

of  April,  1752,  were  again  read, 

and,  by  their  order,  signed  by 

"  Joshua  Crosby,  President. 

"  We  do  approve  of  these  rules 

"  William  Allen,  Chief  Justice. 
Isaac  Norris,  Speaker  of  the  Assembly 
Tench  Francis,  Attorney  General" 

On  February  10,  1752,  four  days  after  the  insertion 
of  the  advertisement  in  the  Gazette,  that  the  Hospital  was 
in  condition  to  receive  patients,  a  meeting  of  the  Man- 
agers and  the  attending  and  consulting  physicians  and 
surgeons  was  held  to  consider  the  first  application  for 
admission  to  the  wards.  The  first  patient  admitted  was 
Margaret  Sherlock,  and  she  was  likewise  the  first  patient 
discharged  cured. 

The  Managers  provided  the  Hospital  with  large  and 
small  spinning-wheels,  two  pairs  of  cards,  and  some  wool 
and  flax.  "  to  employ  such  Persons  as  may  be  capable  of 
using  the  same." 

Franklin  and  Dr.   Thomas  Bond  drew  up  a  suitable 


336  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

design  for  a  seal  for  the  Hospital.  The  same  design 
is  in  use  at  the  present  day,  but  the  original  seal  was 
destroyed  in  1833  and  the  one  now  used  substituted 
for  it. 

In  1754  the  Hospital  published  "  Some  Account  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital ;  from  its  First  Rise  to  the 
Beginning  of  the  Fifth  Month,  called  May,  1754,"  which 
was  written  by  Benjamin  Franklin. 

On  September  11,  1754,  the  Managers  purchased  a  lot 
between  Spruce  and  Pine,  Ninth  and  Eighth  Streets, 
being  the  entire  block  with  the  exception  of  about  one 
acre  on  the  Spruce  Street  side,  which  belonged  to  the 
Penns.  The  price  paid  was  five  hundred  pounds,  and  a 
few  years  later  the  Penns  donated  to  them  the  portion 
of  the  block  which  was  their  property,  and  the  Managers 
thus  acquired  title  to  the  site  occupied  by  the  Hospital 
to  the  present  day. 

The  Managers  then  proceeded  to  consider  plans  for  the 
erection  of  a  permanent  hospital  building,  and  in  1755 
the  work  was  begun.  It  was  decided  to  erect  an  east 
wing  first,  and  to  have  plans  so  drawn  that  the  centre 
building  and  west  wing  could  be  added  at  a  later  period. 

The  corner-stone  was  laid  on  May  28,  1755,  with  much 
ceremony.  The  Managers  and  their  invited  guests  as- 
sembled at  the  building  then  being  used  for  hospital  pur- 
poses at  Seventh  and  High  (now  Market)  Streets  and 
marched  in  a  body  to  the  new  grounds.  Among  those 
present  was  John  Key,  who  was  the  first  person  born  in 
Pennsylvania  after  the  landing  of  William  Penn  in  1682. 
The  public  schools  of  the  city  were  closed.  The  stone 
was  laid  with  Masonic  rites.  It  has  in  recent  years  been 
exposed,  and  can  now  be  seen  and  the  inscription  easily 
read.  This  inscription  was  written  by  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, and  is  as  follows : 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  337 

IN  THE  YEAR  OF  CHRIST 

MDCCLV 

GEORGE    THE    SECOND    HAPPILY    REIGNING 

(for    he    SOUGHT   THE    HAPPINESS    OF    HIS    PEOPLE) 

PHILADELPHIA    FLOURISHING 

(for   ITS   INHABITANTS    WERE   PUBLICK    SPIRITED) 

THIS    BUILDING 

BY  THE  BOUNTY  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT, 

AND  OF   MANY  PRIVATE  PERSONS, 

WAS  PIOUSLY  FOUNDED 

FOR  THE   RELIEF  OF   THE   SICK   AND   MISERABLE; 

MAY    THE    GOD    OF    MERCIES 

BLESS  THE  UNDERTAKING 

In  this  year,  Joshua  Crosby  having  died,  Benjamin 
FrankHn  was  chosen  President  of  the  Board  of  Managers. 

On  May  6,  1756,  the  Contributors  held  their  first  an- 
nual meeting  in  the  new  Hospital,  in  which  place  they 
have  been  held,  with  few  exceptions  ever  since.  The  Man- 
agers met  for  organization  immediately  after  the  Con- 
tributors' meeting,  and  adopted  the  following  rule : 

"  Resolved  to  meet  at  the  Hospital  on  the  last  Monday  in  every 
month  at  5  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  till  the  end  of  the  Month  called 
September,  and  at  3  o'clock  during  the  remainder  of  the  year ;  each 
member  is  to  pay  2s.  6d.  for  Total  absence  and  one  shilling  for  not 
coming  on  time,  and  for  each  hour's  absence  after  the  fixed  time  six 
pence  per  hour,  all  of  which  fines  to  be  disposed  of  as  the  majority 
may  direct ;  the  Town  Clock  or  when  that  does  not  strike,  the 
watch  of  the  oldest  person  present  to  be  the  standard  to  determine 
the  time." 

Dr.  Morton  reproduces  several  pages  from  the  account 
book  showing  the  indebtedness  in  fines  of  Thomas  Crosby 
and  Benjamin  Franklin  for  absence  or  tardiness  at  meet- 
ings subsequent  to  the  passage  of  this  resolution. 

On  December  17,  1756,  the  patients  in  the  High  Street 
building  were  all  brought  over  into  the  Hospital,  which 
was  then  ready  for  such  occupancy.  The  centre  build- 
ing and  west  wing  of  the  Hospital  were  added  to  the  origi- 


338  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

nal  east  wing  in  subsequent  years,  as  first  planned.     The 
west  wing  was  finished  in  1796. 

Dr.  Morton  points  out  as  noteworthy  the  special  refer- 
ence in  all  the  petitions  for  the  founding  of  the  Hos- 
pital, appeals  for  money  for  it,  and  in  its  charter  and 
laws,  to  the  treatment  of  the  insane.  Many  of  the  pa- 
tients in  the  first  building  on  High  Street  were  lunatics, 
and  when  the  Hospital  was  erected  special  provision  was 
made  for  them.  Their  apartments  were  on  the  ground- 
floor  of  the  east  wing,  and  a  gallery  was  made  in  which 
they  could  exercise  themselves.  In  the  temporary  hos- 
pital the  insane  had  had  their  quarters  in  cells  in  a  damp 
cellar,  without  any  heating  or  ventilating  apparatus,  so 
that  the  change  was  greatly  for  their  benefit.  But  even 
in  the  new  Hospital  there  was  one  annoyance  which  be- 
came so  great  that  it  had  to  be  stopped.  The  Hospital 
stood  in  an  open  lot,  without  fence  or  wall,  and  conse- 
quently people  used  to  gather  at  the  windows  of  the 
patients'  cells  and  stare  at  them  and  sometimes  tease  them. 
'On  April  8,  1760,  it  was  resolved, — 

"  That  a  suitable  Pallisade  Fence,  either  of  Iron,  or  Wood,  the 
Iron  being  preferr'd,  should  be  erected  in  Order  to  prevent  the 
Disturbance  which  is  given  to  the  Lunatics  confin'd  in  the  Cells  by 
the  great  Numbers  of  people  who  frequently  resort  and  converse 
with  them.  It  was  also  agreed  to  hire  Two  Constables,  or  other 
proper  Persons  to  attend  at  such  Times  as  are  necessary  to  prevent 
this  Inconvenience  untill  ye  Fence  is  erected." 

The  fence  was  built,  but  the  annoyance  caused  by  peo- 
ple who  wished  to  see  the  insane  continued,  for,  on  May 
10,  1762,  Morton  says,  it  was  noted, — 

"  The  great  crowds  that  invade  the  Hospital  give  trouble  and 
create  so  much  disturbance,  that  Samuel  Rhoades  and  Jacob  Levis 
are  directed  to  employ  a  workman  to  make  a  suitable  hatch  door 
and  get  an   inscription  thereon  notifying  that   such  '  persons  who 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  339 

come  out  of  curiosity  to  visit  the  house  should  pay  a  sum  of  money, 
A  Groat  at  least,  for  admittance.'  " 

Again,  on  April  27,  1767,  it  was  found  necessary  to 

take  up  this  subject : 

"  Orders  were  received  that  the  Hatch  door  be  kept  carefully  shut 
and  that  no  Person  be  admitted  into  the  House  without  paying 
the  gratuity  of  Four  Pence  formerly  agreed  upon,  and  that  care 
be  taken  to  prevent  the  Throng  of  people  who  are  led  by  Curiosity 
to  frequent  the  House  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  to  the  great 
disturbance  of  the   Patients." 

Morton  gives  several  extracts  from  the  minutes  at 
various  times  subsequent  to  this  bearing  upon  the  same 
point.  In  1 79 1  the  physicians  represented  to  the  Man- 
agers the  great  injury  resulting  to  the  insane  patients 
from  the  many  visitors  allowed  to  enter  their  apartments, 
and  as  a  result  the  Managers  resolved, — 

"  That  no  Person  whatever  should  be  hereafter  allowed  to  enter 
the  Grounds,  or  Cells  inclosed  for  their  Accommodation,  unless 
introduced  or  allowed  by  one  of  the  Managers,  Physicians  or  by 
the  Steward,  to  which  resolution  the  Cell-Keeper  was  strictly  to 
Attend,  and  to  keep  the  Gates  and  Wards  locked  in  future,  to  prevent 
all  Intruders  who  might  attempt  to  enter  therein,  without  such 
permission  being  first  obtained." 

I  have  copied  the  following  table  from  among  those 
for  a  number  of  years,  contained  in  "  Some  Account  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital ;  from  its  First  Rise  to  the 
Beginning  of  the  Fifth  Month,  called  May,  1754."  It 
is  interesting  as  illustrating  the  nature  of  the  cases  ad- 
mitted and  the  terms  used  in  diagnosing  them.  It  will 
be  noticed  how  large  is  the  proportion  of  "  scorbutick" 
patients,  and  of  the  insane. 


340 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


Diseases. 

S 

•d 

3 
U 

•a 
> 

■0  >- 

la 
5I 

T3 

(5 

13 
a 
a 
a 

'5 
g 

(2 

Agues      

Annerism  [j/r] 

2 

I 

2 
0 

0 
0 

0 
0 

0 
I 

0 
0 

0 
0 

Asthma 

I 

0 

I 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Cancers 

I 

0 

0 

0 

0 

I 

0 

Consumption 

Contusion 

I 
I 
2 

0 

I 
2 

0 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 

I 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 

0 
0 

Cough,  long  standing 

0 

Dropsy 

lO 
I 
I 

2 

3 

I 
I 

2 

0 
0 
0 
0 

I 
0 
0 
0 

3 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 
0 

2 

Empyema 

0 

Eyes  disordered 

Fevers .    . 

0 
0 

Fistulas   .                

2 

5 
I 

I 

2 

I 

3 

I 
I 
I 

I 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
I 

0 

0 

I 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 

Flux,  long  standing 

Fracture 

I 
0 

0 

Hectick  fevers 

0 

Hypochondriac  melancholy   .... 
Lunacy    

I 
II 

I 
I 

0 

3 
0 

I 
3 

I 
0 

I 
0 

I 

0 
0 
0 
0 

I 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 

3 
0 
0 
0 

0 

5 
0 
0 

Rupture 

0 

Scorbutick  and  scrophulous  ulcers    . 
Suppression  of  urine 

22 
I 

16 

I 

0 
0 

0 
0 

I 
0 

0 
0 

5 
0 

Vertigo 

I 
I 

I 
0 

0 
0 

0 
0 

0 

I 

0 
0 

0 

Uterine  disorder 

0 

Weakness,  habitual 

I 

I 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Wounded 

2 

I 

0 

0 

0 

0 

I 

White  swelling 

I 

7 

I 
0 

0 
I 

0 
0 

0 
0 

0 
0 

0 

6 

In  all 

89 

47 

6 

2 

9 

4 

20 

The  above  table  is  for  the  time  between  the  27th  of 
April,  1754,  and  the  26th  of  April,  1755. 

Dr.  Morton's  History  contains  much  concerning  the 
management  of  the  insane  in  those  days  and  relates  some 
particular  cases  of  interest.  Stephen  Girard's  wife  was 
an  insane  patient  of  the  Hospital  for  some  years.  She 
was  admitted  December  31,  1790,  the  Hospital  to  receive 
from  Girard  twenty-five  shillings  a  week  for  her  care. 
The  next  month  the  Managers  learning  that  she  was 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  341 

pregnant  asked  Girard  to  remove  her,  but  he  prevailed 
on  them  to  let  her  remain.  On  March  28,  1791,  there 
is  the  following  minute : 

"  On  the  3rd  Instant,  Mary  the  Wife  of  Stephen  Girard  was 
delivered  by  Dr.  Hutchinson  and  William  Gardner  of  a  child,  in 
the  presence  of  Edward  Cutbush  and  others,  Mary,  which  on  the 
7th  instant  was  put  out  to  Nurse  with  John  Hatcher's  Wife,  at 
los  Per  Week." 

The  child  died  on  August  26,  1791,  and  Morton  fur- 
nishes us  with  a  transcript  of  the  steward's  bill : 

"August  27th,  1 791 
"  Mr.  Joseph  Henzey  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  Dr. 

To  Joseph  Dolby  for  ye  Burial  of  Mary  Girard's  Child 

To  Gownd 

To  Minister's  Attendance 

To  Clark's  do 

To  Bell 

To  Grave 

To  Invitations 


Mrs.  Girard  died  in  the  Hospital  on  September  13, 
181 5,  and  was  buried  in  the  grounds  of  the  institution. 
Her  husband  gave  the  Hospital  two  thousand  dollars 
on  October  30,  181 5,  and  in  his  will  left  it  thirty  thou- 
sand dollars. 

Morton  tells  the  story  of  one  Thomas  Perrine,  an  in- 
sane sailor,  who  was  admitted  in  March,  1765,  and  died 
in  1774.  At  first  he  was  confined  in  the  cells  on  the 
ground-floor,  but  he  was  a  very  troublesome  patient  and 
finally  escaped  the  cell-keeper  and  made  his  way  to  the 
cupola  on  the  cast  wing,  from  whence  it  was  impossible 
to  remove  him.  Finally  the  Managers  had  bedding  placed 
there  for  him,  and  he  remained  in  his  queer  refuge  all 
the  remaining  years  of  his  life,  finally  dying  in  it.  The 
record  says, — 


£2. 

5- 

0 

0. 

6. 

0 

0. 

4- 

6 

0. 

5- 

0 

0. 

7- 

6 

0. 

10. 

0 

£3^ 

18. 

0 

342  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

"  He  never  left  these  cramped  quarters  for  any  purpose ;  he 
was  also  noted  for  his  long  nails,  matted  beard  and  hair  and  for 
his  insensibility  to  cold,  since  he  never,  in  the  coldest  weather  of 
nine  winters,  came  near  to  a  fire." 

There  was  a  total  absence  of  method  in  the  admit- 
tance of  insane  patients.  Dr.  Morton,  whose  long  ex- 
perience as  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Board 
of  Lunacy  has  rendered  him  an  acknowledged  authority 
on  all  matters  relating  to  the  commitment  of  the  insane 
to  asylums  or  hospitals,  informs  us  that  insane  patients 
were  committed  to  the  Hospital  by  a  few  words  scribbled 
on  any  kind  of  paper  that  might  be  at  hand,  without 
regard  to  any  regular  form,  and  signed  by  any  Manager 
or  physician  whose  signature  was  obtainable.  He  quotes 
several  such  commitments.  Slaves  were  frequently  com- 
mitted to  the  Hospital  by  their  masters,  the  latter  paying 
the  board ;  thus : 

"July  20,  1757.  Admitted  Cato,  a  black  slave,  on  i8th  inst.,  a 
Lunatick  belonging  to  Oswald  Peel,  at  los.  Per  Week." 

On  March  7,  1752,  the  following  bill  was  presented 
against  the  Hospital : 

"John  Cresson,  blacksmith,  against  ye  hospital,  i  pair  of  hand- 
cuffs, 2  legg  locks,  2  large  rings  and  2  large  staples,  5  links  and 
2  large  rings  and  2  swifells  for  legg  chains." 

Dr.  Morton  gives  copious  extracts  from  a  note-book 
kept  by  Samuel  Coates,  a  Manager  of  the  Hospital  from 
1785  to  1825,  in  which  he  records  his  observations  upon 
the  insane  patients  in  the  Hospital  and  numerous  anec- 
dotes concerning  them. 

I  shall  copy  but  one  of  them.  It  is  an  interesting  com- 
mentary on  the  manners  of  our  forefathers,  as  well  as 
a  sample  of  the  records  kept  by  the  worthy  old  Manager 
of  things  he  deemed  of  interest. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  343 

"  Polly — I  believe  it  is  forty  years  since  this  beautiful  Girl  first 
was  brought  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.  Her  insanity  was  attrib- 
uted to  disappointment  in  Love. 

"  One  Night  She  was  chained  to  the  floor  and  to  her  Ankle  in 
bed;  in -this  situation  with  a  saw  or  a  file,  She  separated  the  link 
next  to  her  skin.  This  Secret  she  kept  to  herself,  and  continued  in 
bed,  holding  in  her  hands  the  End  of  her  chains. 

"  In  the  morning  Dr.  Hutchinson,  passing  her  Cell  door.  She 
called  to  him  &  requested  a  favour,  that  he  would  shut  the  Window, 
for  She  was  chilly.  The  Doctor  immediately  mounted  a  chair  & 
drew  the  Sash  down ;  but  turning  his  Back  instead  of  his  face 
to  the  patient.  She  slyly  slipt  out  of  bed,  &,  before  he  could  dis- 
mount from  his  high  Station,  She  was  out,  &  bolting  him  in,  escaped; 
there  he  was  detained  the  best  part  of  an  hour,  calling  on  Dick, 
Tom  or  Harry,  any  one  he  cou'd  see  to  deliver  him  from  Prison. 

"  The  hue  and  Cry  for  Polly  was  soon  made ;  at  length  she 
was  found,  wading  up  to  her  knees  in  Mud  &  water,  thro'  the  mouth 
of  the  Culvert  or  common  Sewer,  into  the  Dock,  nearly  opposite 
to  Joshua  Gilpin's  house.  Where  She  first  entered  into  this  Sub- 
terraneous passage,  I  do  not  remember,  tho'  I  recollect  her  return- 
ing in  high  Glee  to  her  old  quarters.  Exulting  in  the  trick  she  had 
played  upon  the  doctor. 

"  The  apparently  mild  and  attractive  Charms  of  this  beautiful 
Woman  were  apt  to  lure  young  &  old  into  long  &  familiar  Con- 
versation with  her.  She  was  often  treacherous,  tho'  she  seemed  so 
Agreeable — The  following  is  an  Instance. 

"  One  day,  in  the  line  of  his  dut}',  Dr.  Parke  paid  her  a  Visit — 
She  was  then  rather  High — The  Doctor  view'd  her  with  Interest 
&  continued  talking  with  her  some  time,  during  this  interview, 
which  seem'd  on  both  sides  agreeable,  t  have  no  Doubt  but  Polly 
was  preparing  to  finish ;  for,  having  her  hand  in  her  pocket,  while 
he  was  speaking  to  her,  she  suddenly  thrusted  a  long  knife  at 
his  body  which  She  pulled  out  unobserved  &  pierced  thro'  his  Coat 
and  Jackett ;  and  entering  the  Wall,  it  drew  from  it  a  triangular 
plug  of  Mortar,  about  an  inch  in  length  on  every  side  &  even 
scraped  the  very  brick,  leaving  the  marks  of  the  knife  upon  it  for 
severall  years  till  the  Chasm  was  filled.  The  Doctor,  I  expect  will 
remember  this  freak,  which  cost  Polly  a  few  ounces  of  Blood. 

"  Many  Years  since,  I  was  walking  on  the  Commons  &  heard  a 
great  Noise.  Where  it  came  from  I  could  not  tell,  but  list'ning 
Attentively,  I  discovered  it  was  from  the  blue  house,  and  directing 
my  course  there,  I  found  it  to  be  the  shouting  of  a  great  number  of 
people.  They  were  Assembled  to  a  Bull  baiting,  which  in  those 
days,  was  a  common  practice.     The  Animal  appeared   to  be  in  a 


344 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


great  rage,  tho'  much  exhausted  by  the  Dogs,  before  I  reached  the 
Scene  of  Action.  Soon  after  I  got  there,  a  Small  Mastiff  was  sett 
on,  which  he  threw  about  ten  feet  high,  &  he  fell  to  the  Ground 
with  his  upper  Jaw  broke  &  Every  tooth  Out. 

"A  short  rest  was  now  again  given  to  the  Bull,  when  a  pre- 
sumptious  little  Man,  to  shew  what  he  could  do,  run  towards  the 
Animal,  but  Returned  faster  than  he  went,  for  the  creature  took 
him  under  his  breech  &  tossed  him  about  12  feet  from  the  end  of 
the  Rope. 

"A  New  pack  of  dogs  being  procured  to  renew  the  fight,  every  Eye 
was  turned  to  the  Onset. 

"At  this  moment,  Polly  scaled  the  high  fence,  thro'  the  Crack  of 
which  she  saw  the  battle  &  pitying  the  Bull,  She  pierced  unseen 
thro'  the  Circle  &  ran  up  directly  to  the  Ring;  and  without  Shoes 
or  Stockings ;  with  her  Bosom  all  open ;  her  neck  bare  And  her 
beautiful  Ringlets  wildly  dangling  over  her  Shoulders — her  other 
Cloathing  was  her  Shift  only  and  a  white  petty  coat;  so  that  she 
Appear'd  more  like  a  Ghost  than  a  human  Creature.  When  she 
reached  the  Bull,  (tho'  previously  &  almost  immediately  before, 
he  was  in  a  Rage)  She  Accosted  him  thus — '  Poor  Bully !  have  they 
hurt  you?  they  shall  not  hurt  you  any  more,'  &  stroking  his  fore- 
head &  his  face  She  repeated  '  they  shall  not,  They  shall  not  hurt 
thee.'  This  was  indeed  Wonderful ;  but  the  Animal's  behavior  was 
not  less  so,  for  he  no  Sooner  saw  her  approaching  him,  than  he 
dropt  his  Head  &  became  Mild  &  gentle,  As  tho'  he  knew  She  was 
sent  to  deliver  him. 

"  The  whole  Concourse  of  Spectators  saw  it,  and  were  Struck 
with  Astonishment — not  one  of  whom  dared  to  enter  into  the  Ring 
to  save  her;  but  stood  trembling  for  Polly's  Life,  afraid  to  stir 
a  Step  and  even  to  follow  her  on  the  Return,  thro'  the  Midst  of  the 
dumb  Struck  Company,  like  an  Arrow  from  the  Bow,  Over  the 
high  fence  again  to  the  Hospital  from  which  She  eloped." 

Benjamin  Rush  not  onl)^  manifested  the  most  active 
zeal  in  the  performance  of  his  medical  duties  to  the  Hos- 
pital, but  his  benevolence  led  him  to  exert  himself  for 
the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  insane,  and  there 
are  interesting  records  left  of  what  he  did  in  this  direc- 
tion. 

On  November  11,  1789,  he  wrote  to  the  Board  of 
Managers, — 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  345 

"  Gentlemen  : — Under  the  conviction  that  the  patients  afiflicted 
by  Madness,  should  be  the  first  objects  of  the  care  of  a  physician  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  I  have  attempted  to  relieve  them,  but 
I  am  Sorry  to  add  that  my  attempts  which  at  first  promised  some 
Improvement  were  soon  afterwards  rendered  Abortive  by  the  Cells 
of  the  Hospital. 

"  These  apartments  are  damp  in  Winter  &  too  warm  in  Summer. 
They  are  moreover  so  constituted,  as  not  to  admit  readily  of  a 
change  of  air ;  hence  the  smell  of  them  is  both  offensive  and 
unwholesome. 

"  Few  patients  have  ever  been  confined  in  these  Cells  who  have 
not  been  affected  by  a  cold  in  two  or  three  weeks  after  their  con- 
finement, and  several  have  died  of  Consumption  in  consequence  of 
this  cold. 

"  These  facts  being  clearly  established,  I  conceive  that  the  appro- 
priating of  these  Cells  any  longer  for  the  reception  of  mad  people 
will  be  dishonourable  both  to  the  Science  and  Humanity  of  the 
city  of  Philadelphia. 

"  Should  more  wholesome  apartments  be  provided  for  them,  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  many  of  them  might  be  Relieved  by  the 
use  of  remedies  which  have  lately  been  discovered  to  be  effectual 
in  their  disorder. 

"  With  great  respect  I  am,  Gentlemen,  your  friend  and  humble 
servant, 

"  Benjamin  Rush" 

It  does  not  seem  that  anything  was  done  in  direct  re- 
sponse to  this  request. 

In  1798,  Rush  once  more  wrote  to  the  Board  of  Man- 
agers on  the  betterment  of  the  condition  of  the  lunatics 
in  their  care : 

"April  30th,   1798 

"  Mr.  Coatcs  will  please  to  recollect  the  following  Propositions 
to  be  laid  before  the  Managers  for  the  benefit  of  the  Asylum  for 
Mad  people,  viz:  ist.  Two  Warm  and  two  cold  Bath  rooms  in  the 
lowest  floor — all  to  be  Connected ;  also  a  pump  in  the  Area  to 
supply  the  Baths  with  Water. 

"  2nd.  Certain  Employments  to  be  devised  for  such  of  the  de- 
ranged people  as  are  Capable  of  Working,  spinning,  sewing,  churn- 
ing, &c.  might  be  contrived  for  the  women ;  Turning  a  Wheel,  par- 
ticularly grinding  Indian  Corn  in  a  Hand  Mill,  for  food  for  the 
Horse  or  Cows  of  the  Hospital,  cutting  Straw,  weaving,  digging  in 


346  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

the  Garden,  sawing  or  planing  boards,  &c.  &c.  would  be  Useful  for 
the  Men. 

"  Benj.  Rush." 

I  cannot  refrain  from  giving  in  full,  from  Morton's 
History,  an  important  memorial  addressed  by  Rush  to 
the  Managers  in  1810  on  the  same  subject.  It  is  so 
full  of  personal  interest,  and  has  such  an  important 
bearing  on  the  history  of  the  treatment  of  the  insane  in 
the  first  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  that  I  think 
it  justly  merits  reproduction. 

"  Gentlemen  : — When  our  late  illustrious  fellow  Citizen,  Dr. 
Franklin  walked  out  from  his  house  to  lay  the  foundation  stone 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  he  was  accompanied  by  the  late  Dr. 
Bond  and  the  Managers  and  Physicians  of  the  Hospital.  On  thtir 
way  Dr.  Bond  lamented  that  the  Hospital  would  allure  strangers 
from  all  the  then  provinces  in  America.  Then  (said  Dr.  Franklin) 
our  institution  will  be  more  useful  than  we  intended  it  to  be. — 
This  answer  has  been  verified  in  a  remarkable  manner,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  relief  our  Hospital  has  afforded  to  persons  deprived 
of  their  reason  from  nearly  all  the  States  in  the  Union.  As  great 
improvements  have  taken  place  in  the  treatment  of  persons  in  that 
melancholy  situation,  within  the  last  thirty  years,  I  beg  leave  to 
lay  an  account  of  them  before  you,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
obtain  them,  from  the  histories  of  Asylums  for  mad  people  in  foreign 
countries,  as  well  as  from  my  own  experience  during  five  and 
twenty  years  attendance  upon  that  class  of  patients  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital. 

"  By  adopting  them,  we  may  extend  the  usefulness  and  reputation 
of  the  hospital,  and  thus  contribute  to  add  to  the  high  character 
our  city  has  long  sustained  for  wise  and  benevolent  institutions. 

"  The  improvements  which  I  wish  respectfully  to  submit  to  your 
consideration  are  as  follows : 

"  I.  That  small  and  solitary  buildings  be  erected  at  a  convenient 
distance  from  the  west  wing  of  the  hospital,  for  the  reception  of 
patients  in  the  high  and  distracted  state  of  madness,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  injuries  done  by  the  noises  to  persons  in  the  recent, 
or  convalescent  state  of  that  disease,  and  to  patients  in  other 
diseases,  by  depriving  them  of  sleep,  or  by  inducing  distress  from 
sympathy  with  their  sufferings. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  347 

"  2.  That  separate  floors  be  appropriated  for  each  of  the  sexes. 

"  3.  That  certain  kinds  of  labour,  exercise  and  amusement  be 
contrived  for  them,  which  shall  act  at  the  same  time  upon  their 
bodies  and  minds.  The  advantages  of  labour  have  been  evinced 
in  foreign  hospitals  as  well  as  our  own,  in  a  greater  number  of 
recoveries  taking  place,  among  that  class  of  people  who  are  em- 
ployed in  the  ordinary  work  of  the  hospital,  than  in  persons  elevated 
by  their  rank  in  life  above  the  obligations  or  necessity  of  labour. 
Exercise  and  amusements  should  be  the  substitutes  for  labour  in  such 
persons.  The  amusements  should  be  swinging,  seesaw,  riding  a 
hobby  horse,  or  in  what  are  called  flying  Coaches,  playing  at  Chess 
and  checkers,  listening  to  the  music  of  a  flute,  or  violin,  and  in 
making  short  excursions  into  the  City  or  Country.  Perhaps  kinds 
of  labor  might  be  discovered  for  every  class  of  mad  people,  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  afford  a  small  addition  to  the  funds  of  the  hospital. 

"  4.  That  an  intelligent  man  and  woman  be  employed  to  attend  the 
different  sexes,  whose  business  shall  be  to  direct  and  share  in  their 
amusements  and  to  divert  their  minds  by  conversation,  reading,  and 
obliging  them  to  read  and  write  upon  subjects  suggested  from 
time  to  time  by  the  attending  physician.  While  we  admit  Madness 
to  be  seated  in  the  mind,  by  a  strange  obliquity  of  conduct,  we 
attempt  to  cure  it  only  by  corporeal  remedies — The  disease  affects 
both  the  body  and  mind,  and  can  be  cured  only  by  remedies  applied 
to  each  of  them. 

"  5.  That  no  visitors  be  permitted  to  converse  with  or  even  to 
see  the  mad  people  (the  Managers  and  officers  of  the  Hospital 
excepted),  without  an  order  from  the  attending  physician  unless 
he  depute  that  power  to  one  of  the  resident  Apothecaries.  Many 
evils  arise  from  an  indiscriminate  intercourse  of  mad  people  with 
visitors,  whether  members  of  their  own  families,  or  strangers.  They 
often  complain  to  them  of  the  Managers,  officers  and  physicians  of 
the  hospital,  and  at  times,  in  so  rational  a  manner  as  to  induce  a 
belief  that  their  tales  of  injustice  and  oppression  are  true. 

"  Madness  moreover  which  might  have  been  concealed  in  indi- 
viduals and  in  families,  is  thereby  made  public.  Nor  is  this  all. 
The  anticipation  of  being  exposed  as  a  spectacle  to  idle  and  some- 
times to  impertinent  visitors  is  the  chief  reason  why  our  hospital 
is  often  the  last,  instead  of  the  first  retreat  of  persons  affected  by 
Madness.  I  would  rather  die  (said  a  young  gentleman  of  respect- 
able connections  in  our  City,  a  few  years  ago,  who  felt  the  pre- 
monitory signs  of  that  disease)  than  to  be  gazed  at  and  pitied,  in 
the  cell  of  a  hospital.  To  prevent  this  poignant  evill  he  discharged 
a  musquet  ball  thro'  his  head,  a  few  days  afterwards. 

"6.  That  a  number  of  feather  beds  and  hair  mattresses,  with  an 


348  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

arm  chair  be  provided  for  the  use  of  the  cells  of  all  those  who 
pay  a  liberal  price  for  their  board,  and  whose  grade  of  madness  is 
such  as  not  to  endanger  any  injury  being  done  to  those  articles. 

"  7.  That  each  of  the  cells  be  provided  with  a  close  Stool  with 
a  pan  half  filled  with  water,  in  order  to  absorb  the  foetor  from 
their  evacuations.  The  inventor  of  this  delicate  and  healthful  con- 
trivance (Dr.  Clark  of  New  Castle,  in  England)  deserves  more  from 
humanity  and  Science,  than  if  he  had  discovered  a  new  planet. 
Figure  to  yourselves,  Gentlemen,  the  sufferings  of  persons  in  a 
small  room  from  inhaling  the  foetor  of  their  stools  for  hours  after 
they  have  been  discharged  into  a  Chamber  Pot !  Contrast  the  differ- 
ence of  this  situation  with  that  in  which  those  persons  passed  days 
and  nights  of  sickness  and  confinement  in  their  own  houses ! 

"  But  other  and  greater  evils  have  followed  the  use  of  Chamber 
Pots  in  the  cells  of  our  hospitals.  A.  W.  Searle,  in  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, lost  his  life,  in  1794,  in  consequence  of  the  mortification 
of  a  wound  upon  his  buttock  brought  on  by  one  of  them  breaking 
under  him,  and  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  malignant 
fever  of  which  George  Campbell  died  in  the  month  of  August  last, 
was  induced  by  his  being  constantly  exposed  to  the  exhalations  from 
the  faeces  of  mad  people,  in  emptying  their  chamber  pots  and  clean- 
ing their  cells.  I  am  aware  that  it  would  be  impracticable  to  carry 
into  effect  all  the  matters  suggested  in  this  letter,  in  the  Present 
State  of  the  funds  of  our  hospital,  but  the  comfort  of  the  mad 
people,  and  the  reputation  of  the  institution  are  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  immediate  adoption  of  Some  of  them.  There  is  a 
great  pleasure  in  combatting  with  success  a  violent  bodily  disease, 
but  what  is  this  pleasure  compared  with  that  of  restoring  a  fellow 
creature  from  the  anguish  and  folly  of  madness,  and  of  reviving 
within  him  the  knowledge  of  himself,  his  family,  his  friends  and  his 
God !  But  where  this  cannot  be  done,  how  delightful  the  considera- 
tion of  suspending  by  our  humanity,  their  mental  and  bodily  misery. 

"  Degraded  as  they  are  by  their  disease,  a  sense  of  corporeal 
pleasure,  of  joy,  of  gratitude,  of  neglect,  and  of  injustice  is  seldom 
totally  obliterated  from  their  minds. 

"  I  shall  conclude  this  letter  by  an  appeal  to  several  members  of 
your  board  to  vouch  for  my  having  more  than  once  suggested  most 
of  the  above  means  foi  the  recovery  and  comfort  of  the  deranged 
persons  under  your  care,  long  before  it  pleased  God  to  interest  me 
in  their  adoption  by  rendering  one  of  my  family  an  object  of  them. 

"  I  am.  Gentlemen,  with  great  respect  and  esteem 

"  Your  sincere  friend  and  Servant 

"  Benj.  Rush 

"  September  24th,  1810." 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  349 

The  Board  of  Managers  took  prompt  action  on  this  let- 
ter, and  we  learn  from  the  report  of  its  committee  on  this 
matter  that  such  of  the  suggestions  of  Dr.  Rush  as  had 
not  already  been  adopted  would  be  at  once  carried  out. 

The  reference  to  an  affliction  in  his  own  family  in  Dr. 
Rush's  letter  concerned  a  relative  of  his  who  when  a 
lieutenant  in  the  navy  had  killed  a  fellow-officer  in  a 
duel.  As  a  result  he  became  afflicted  with  melancholia. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  Hospital  on  September  7,  18 10, 
and  lived  there  until  his  death  on  August  9,  1837.  Mor- 
ton says, — 

"  He  was  a  most  confirmed  peripatetic,  walking  the  floor,  to  and 
fro,  every  day  and  almost  all  day,  until  the  planks  of  the  ward 
flooring  and  of  a  certain  place  upon  the  board-walk  of  the  yard 
were  worn  into  deep  gutters ;  these  were  always  called  '  Rush's 
Walk.' " 

In  Samuel  Coates's  note-book  is  a  story  concerning 
him : 

"  The  Barber  on  combing  his  hair  pleasantly  remarked  to  him 
that  it  was  becoming  quite  Grey,  '  but  never  Mind ;'  added  he,  '  Grey 
hairs  are  honourable,  you  know.'  '  Yes,'  replied  the  patient  em- 
phatically, '  And  sometimes  Honour  makes  Grey  hairs.'  " 

In  Morton's  "  History"  there  is  a  figure  of  an  appa- 
ratus designed  by  Dr.  Rush  for  use  in  the  treatment  of 
insanity,  known  as  a  "  tranquilliser."  It  was  a  chair  with 
a  frame  made  to  hold  the  head  of  the  patient  in  a  fixed 
position.  In  this  chair  the  unfortunate  was  strapped  and 
retained  until  sufficiently  tranquillized.  He  also  devised 
a  machine  which  he  called  a  "  gyrator"  to  be  used  in 
"  torpid  madness."  It  was  supposed  to  cause  an  increased 
amount  of  blood  to  go  to  the  head  and  thence  produce  a 
good  effect. 

Insane  patients  continued  to  be  kept  in  the  Hospital  at 
Eighth  and  Spruce  Streets  until  1841,  when  the  Insane 


350  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

Department  was  removed  to  the  place  it  continues  to 
occupy  in  West  Philadelphia. 

The  early  entries  regarding  patients,  their  admission, 
treatment,  etc.,  are  in  many  instances  most  amusing.  I 
have  picked  out  a  few  from  the  many  Morton  takes  from 
the  records  of  the  Hospital.  Thus,  on  "  March  31,  1760, 
— Discharged  James  Romage  being  too  Ancient  to  hope 
Success  from  the  Operation  he  returned  thanks."  As 
Dr.  Morton  says,  this  entry  is  ambiguous.     On  May  28, 

1764,  there  was  admitted  "  Alexr.  Freeze  a  poor  Sailor 
with  Rose  Drop,  the  Matron's  Security."     January  28, 

1765,  the  records  are  most  interesting,  for  on  that  day 
"  Peter  Foster  Cured  went  away  &  took  no  leave,"  "  Ed- 
ward McCormick  Cros'd  in  Love  gave  a  note  to  pay 
when  able,"  and  Anna  Goetz  had  "  Histerick  Passions 
her  Son  John  Goetz  her  Security." 

The  Indian  frontier  of  colonial  days  was  not  so  far 
distant  from  Philadelphia  that  occasional  victims  of 
savage  warfare  did  not  find  their  way  to  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital.  On  "  March  31, 1756,  Admitted  David  Howell, 
a  poor  Patient  from  Berks  County,  having  a  Gunshot 
wound  and  fractured  Bone  on  one  Arm  done  the  6th  inst. 
by  the  Enemy  Indians,  James  Biddle  of  said  County 
Security;"  and  on  October  3,  1764,  "Admitted  Mar- 
garet Sinclair,  a  poor  patient,  with  Disiness  in  the  Head 
having  been  much  abused  by  the  Indians." 

On  October  13,  1755,  "  Michael  Higgins  a  Soldier, 
was  admitted,  having  his  under  jaw  shot  off  in  the  late 
Engagement  under  General  Braddock."  There  were  also 
records  of  the  admission  of  a  number  of  soldiers  of  the 
provincial  forces  engaged  in  the  wars  between  the  French 
and  English  for  the  possession  of  the  colonies  in  North 
America. 

Several  Indians  were  received  as  patients,  and  Morton 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  351 

gives  two  entries  concerning-  Chinese  patients.  On  Octo- 
ber 26,  1762,  "  Admitted  a  Negro  Boy  of  John  GilHland's 
with  Guinea  Worms  in  his  feet." 

The  objects  put  up  as  security  by  patients  were  some- 
times of  not  much  apparent  intrinsic  value.  On  October 
3,  1764,  "John  Bryan  a  poor  person  was  admitted  with 
large  ulcers,  a  pair  of  buckles  his  security,"  and  on  Sep- 
tember 28,  1785,  "  a  poor  sailor  was  admitted  with  Rheu- 
matism, his  chest  of  cloathes,  his  security." 

In  1755,  the  English  having  confiscated  the  lands  of 
the  French  settlers  in  Arcadia,  a  number  of  the  latter  were 
deported,  and  in  September  of  that  year  fourteen  hundred 
of  them  were  landed  at  Philadelphia.  These  unfortunates 
were  quartered  in  huts  and  sheds  near  what  is  now  Sixth 
and  Pine  Streets.  Morton  quotes  from  the  minutes  for 
April  26,  1763,  the  following:  "Admitted  as  Out  Pa- 
tients Seven  French  Neutrals  accidentally  poisoned  by 
Eating  Poke  Root  which  they  had  mistaken  for  Horse 
Raddish." 

The  Medical  Library  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  has 
always  been  a  source  of  just  pride  to  the  institution. 
Morton  says  the  first  minute  of  the  Board  of  Managers 
relating  to  the  Library  is  found  on  July  27,  1762,  as 
follows : 

"  William  Logan  lately  returned  from  London  attended  the  Board 
with  a  Book  entitled  'An  Experimental  History  of  the  Materia 
Medica  by  Wm.  Lewis,  F.R.S.,'  lately  published  in  London,  being 
a  present  to  this  Hospital  by  Doc'r  John  Fothergill  for  the  Benefit 
of  the  Young  Students  in  Physic  who  may  attend  under  the  Direc- 
tion of  the  Physicians,  which  is  kindly  accepted  by  the  Managers 
as  an  additional  Mark  of  the  Doctor's  benevolent  Regard  to  this 
Institution,  and  Wm.  Logan  is  requested  to  acquaint  him  with  our 
grateful  Acceptance  thereof." 

It  is  interesting  to  find  the  great  London  physician 
taking  at  all  times  such  an  active  interest  in  the  affairs 


352  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

of  the  young  Hospital  and  doing  so  much  for  the  eleva- 
tion of  medical  science  in  America. 

The  physicians  and  surgeons  of  the  Hospital  showed 
a  laudable  zeal  in  the  same  direction.  In  May,  1763,  they 
addressed  the  following  proposal  to  the  Managers : 

"As  the  Custom  of  most  of  the  Hospitals  in  Great  Britain  has 
given  such  gratuities  from  those  students  who  attend  the  wards 
of  the  Hospital  to  the  Physicians  and  Surgeons  attending  them, 
we  think  it  properly  belongs  to  us  to  appropriate  the  Money  arising 
from  thence.  And  we  propose  to  apply  it  to  the  founding  of  a 
Medical  Library  in  the  Hospital  which  we  judge  will  tend  greatly 
to  the  Advantage  of  the  Pupils  &  the  honor  of  the  Institution." 

This  proposal  was  acceded  to  by  the  Managers,  and 
the  funds  from  it  were  sufficient  to  furnish  the  Library 
with  many  volumes.  Many  gifts  and  donations  of  books 
from  various  sources  were  received,  and  a  number  of 
legacies  of  books  were  left  to  the  Hospital. 

In  April,  1774,  a  committee  of  the  Managers  wrote  as 
follows  to  William  Strahan,  the  London  bookseller,  whose 
name  will  long  survive  embalmed  in  Boswell's  pages : 

"  Respected  Friend. — The  Managers  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hos- 
pital having  deputed  us  to  procure  some  books  for  the  Medical 
Library,  as  we  apprehend  thou  canst  supply  us  in  the  most  ad- 
vantageous Terms  we  herewith  send  thee  a  List  of  them  desiring 
thee  to  prepare  and  ship  them  by  the  first  Vessel  coming  to  this 
Port  that  they  may  be  here  before  the  Winter.  This  we  are  very 
desirous  of  as  the  young  Students  who  from  the  neighboring 
Provinces  attend  the  Lectures  of  the  several  professors  in  our 
Medical  School  may  then  have  the  benefit  of  reading  them  a  year 
sooner  than  they  can  if  they  should  not  arrive  before  next  Spring ; 
for  the  Cost  of  them  we  will  send  thee  a  timely  Remittance.  When 
any  new  Books  or  Essays  on  any  branch  of  Medicine  appear  we 
shall  be  glad  to  have  copies  of  such  of  them  sent  us  as  are  of  small 
Cost,  and  an  acc't  of  such  as  are  more  costly  then  if  we  judge  them 
necessary  we  may  send  for  them." 

The  above-mentioned  books  arrived  in  December. 
Later  the  Managers  requested  Dr.  Lettsom,  of  London, 


^•-y 

■^ 


T  ''■ 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  353 

to  purchase  and  forward  to  them  such  medical  books  as 
he  thought  it  desirable  the  Library  should  have. 

In  1807  the  long  room  on  the  second  floor  of  the 
Hospital  which  is  the  Library  was  ordered  fitted  up  for 
that  purpose.  It  was  used  to  contain  the  books  until 
1824,  when  the  books  were  removed  and  the  room  con- 
verted into  a  lying-in  ward.  In  1835  ^^^  lying-in  ward 
was  removed  to  the  Picture  House  and  the  books  moved 
back  to  their  old  resting-place,  where  they  have  ever  since 
remained. 

Very  stringent  rules  were  made  and  enforced  as  re- 
garded the  use  of  the  books,  but  at  the  same  time  pro- 
vision was  made  that  the  Library  should  occupy  as  broad 
a  field  of  usefulness  as  possible. 

The  first  printed  catalogue  of  the  books  in  the  Hospital 
Library  was  published  in  1790.  A  second  catalogue  was 
rendered  necessary  in  1806  by  the  great  increase  in  the 
number  of  books.  Another  was  issued  in  1829,  followed 
by  a  supplement  in  1837.  In  1857  a  Catalogue  Raisonne 
was  published,  followed  by  a  supplement  in  1883. 

The  Museum  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  may  be 
dated  from  1757,  when  Deborah  Morris  presented  to  it 
a  skeleton  to  be  used  for  teaching  purposes,  but  its  real 
history  begins  in  1762.  Morton  quotes  the  following 
record  of  a  meeting  of  the  Managers  held  on  November  8 
of  that  year : 

"  The  Board  being  called  at  the  Request  of  Doc'r  William  Ship- 
pen  jun'r,  lately  arrived  from  London,  he  attended  &  informed  the 
Board  that,  Per  the  '  Carolina'  Captain  Freind,  are  arrived  from 
Doc'r  John  Fothergill,  Seven  Cases  which  contain  a  parcel  of 
Anatomical  Drawings  which  the  Doctor  inform'd  him  when  in 
London,  he  intended  as  a  Present  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
but  that  he  has  not  received  any  Letter  or  Invoice  of  them  nor 
any  further  directions  but  what  the  Doctor  verbally  gave  him  there 
&  that  he  concludes  his  constant  Engagements  had  prevented  his 
Writing  Per  this  ship.     But  by  a  Letter  from  him  to  James  Pem- 

23 


354  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

berton  dated  7th  4  mo.  last  he  therein  signifies  in  general  his  In- 
tentions of  sending  this  Present  to  the  Hospital  &  The  Uses  he 
proposes  thereby  of  wch  the  following  is  an  Abstract: 

" '  I  distributed  the  Books  thou  wast  pleas'd  to  send  me  as 
desir'd  but  they  came  perhaps  at  an  unlucky  Juncture,  Money  is 
much  wanted  here  for  numerous  Purposes  &  men  part  with  Fifty 
Pounds  with  reluctance  when  they  know  that  a  little  more  would 
purchase  them  a  hundred,  the  Hospital  however  must  subsist  itself 
as  well  as  possible  till  better  times.  I  purpose  to  send  by  Doc'r 
Shippen  a  present  to  it  of  some  intrinsic  value  tho'  not  probably  of 
immediate  Benefit.  I  need  not  tell  thee  that  the  Knowledge  of 
Anatomy  is  of  exceeding  great  use  to  Practitioners  in  Physic  & 
Surgery  &  that  the  means  of  procuring  Subjects  with  you  are  not 
easy,  some  pretty  accurate  anatomical  Drawings  about  half  as  big 
as  Life  have  fallen  into  my  hands  Which  I  purpose  to  send  to 
your  Hospital  to  be  under  the  Care  of  the  Physicians  &  to  be  by 
some  of  them  explained  to  the  Students  or  Pupils  who  may  attend 
the  Hospital. 

"  '  In  the  want  of  real  Subjects  these  will  have  their  Use  &  I  have 
recommended  it  to  Dr.  Shippen  to  give  a  Course  of  Anatomical 
Lectures  to  such  as  may  attend,  he  is  very  well  qualified  for  the 
subject  &  will  soon  be  followed  by  an  able  Assistant  Dr.  Morgan 
both  of  whom  I  apprehend  will  not  only  be  useful  to  the  Province 
in  their  Employments  but  if  suitably  countenanced  by  the  Legis- 
lature will  be  able  to  erect  a  School  for  Physic  amongst  you  that 
may  draw  many  Students  from  various  parts  of  America  &  the 
West  Indies  &  at  least  furnish  them  with  a  better  Idea  of  the  Rudi- 
ments of  their  Profession  than  they  have  at  present  the  Means  of 
acquiring  on  your  side  of  the  Water. 

" '  Should  the  Managers  of  the  Hospital  think  proper  I  could 
wish  that  if  the  Drawings  &  Casts  I  shall  send  P.  the  next  Con- 
voy come  safe  they  might  be  lodged  in  some  low  Apartment  of 
the  Hospital  not  to  be  seen  by  every  Person  but  with  the  Permis- 
sion of  a  Trustee  &  for  some  small  Gratuity  for  the  Benefit  of  the 
House.  The  Drawings  are  in  Crayons  &  should  therefore  not  be 
kept  in  too  dry  a  place  nor  shaked  about  too  much.' 

"And  Doctor  Shippen  proposing  to  exhibit  a  Course  of  Lectures 
on  Anatomy  this  Winter  requested  he  might  have  recourse  to  the 
said  Drawings  &  Casts  the  Managers  being  desirous  of  counte- 
nancing him  in  his  undertaking  agree  he  may  have  the  use  of  them 
in  such  manner  and  place  as  after  consulting  the  Physicians  may 
be  thought  most  convenient  &  least  prejudicial  to  the  Drawings 
as  they  require  to  be  handled  with  the  greatest  Delicacy  &  Care 
&  after  consulting  with  the  Physicians,  who  on  Notice  being  sent 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  355 

them  attended  on  the  occasion  viz.  Thomas  Bond,  Phineas  Bond, 
William  Shippen,  senr.,  John  Redman,  &  Cadwallader  Evans,  to 
whom  the  proposal  of  Dr.  Shippen  junr.  of  his  exhibiting  a  course 
of  Lectures  &c.  being  communicated  they  unanimously  express'd  their 
approbation  thereof  &  it  was  concluded  that  the  several  Cases  should 
be  conveyed  to  the  Hospital  &  that  the  Physicians  &  Managers  would 
attend  there  tomorrow  at  3  o'clock  p.m.  to  view  the  Contents." 

Many  acquisitions  were  subsequently  made,  by  pur- 
chase, gift,  or  legacy.  In  August,  1799,  the  Managers 
made  an  agreement  with 

"  Wm  Stevens  Jacobs  to  board  in  the  house  during  the  prevalence 
of  Yellow  fever  and  while  here  to  put  the  museum  in  good  order, 
to  pay  $4  per  week  for  his  board,  find  his  own  liquor,  and  not  to 
go  to  the  city  during  the  fever." 

In  1805  the  first  catalogue  of  the  Museum  was  pub- 
lished with  that  of  the  Library.  In  1824  the  entire  collec- 
tion was  presented  by  the  Board  of  Managers  to  the 
trustees  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  with  the  idea 
that  its  usefulness  would  thus  be  rendered  greater.  In 
1853  steps  were  taken  to  form  a  new  collection,  which 
rapidly  assumed  large  proportions.  A  curator  was  ap- 
pointed, the  first  to  hold  the  position  being  Dr.  Thomas 
G.  Morton,  the  subsequent  historian  of  the  Hospital.  In 
1869  the  University  returned  to  the  Hospital  as  objects 
of  historic  interest  the  drawings  and  casts  presented  to 
it  by  Dr.  Fothergill.  In  the  same  year  Dr.  William 
Pepper,  who  had  succeeded  Dr.  Morton  as  Curator,  com- 
piled a  descriptive  catalogue,  which  was  published  by  the 
Board  of  Managers. 

It  was  not  until  1803  that  a  maternity  ward  was  regu- 
larly opened  in  the  Hospital,  although  in  1793  the  Penn- 
sylvania Assembly  passed  an  Act  authorizing  the  Man- 
agers to  furnish  a  ward  for  the  reception  of  such  patients. 
Women  had  been  confined  in  the  Hospital  in  previous 
years,  but  this  had  occurred  through  the  accident  of  cir- 


356  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

cumstances.  We  have  seen  that  Mrs.  Girard  was  de- 
Hvered  of  a  child  while  a  patient  of  the  Hospital.  The 
first  birth  recorded  in  the  Hospital  was  on  July  17,  1765, 
when  there  was  "  Born  a  female  child  of  Martha  Robin- 
son a  poor  patient."  In  1854  the  lying-in  ward  was 
finally  closed  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  puerperal 
fever  among  the  patients  in  it.  The  ward  had  been  first  in 
the  second  floor  of  the  east  wing  until  181 7,  when  the 
Contributors'  room  was  ordered  by  the  managers  to  be 
used  for  that  purpose.  From  1824  to  1835  the  present 
Library  was  used  as  the  lying-in  ward.  In  1835  the  ward 
was  transformed  to  the  Picture  House,  where  it  remained 
until  finally  closed. 

For  some  years  subsequent  to  the  founding  of  the  Hos- 
pital no  especially  trained  assistants  were  required  to 
attend  to  the  routine  wants  of  the  sick  in  it.  The  matron 
and  attendants  looked  after  all  the  matters  now  in  the 
hands  of  the  resident  staff  of  physicians  and  trained  nurses. 
It  was  customary  for  the  attending  physicians  and  sur- 
geons to  bring  with  them  their  apprentices,  as  their 
private  students  were  at  that  time,  and  they  would  ren- 
der the  necessary  assistance  to  their  masters  in  dressing 
cases,  etc.  In  1773  the  managers  began  the  custom  of 
taking  apprentices  to  live  in  the  Hospital.  These  were 
young  men  studying  medicine,  who  in  return  for  the 
instruction  afforded  them  during  their  term  in  the  Hos- 
pital rendered  service  as  dressers,  etc.,  in  the  wards. 
Morton  has  a  fac-simile  of  the  indenture  of  Thomas 
Boutler  to  "  learn  the  Art,  Trade  and  Mystery  of  an 
Apothecary."  The  apprentice  was  bound  to  serve  the 
Hospital  for  a  term  of  five  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
period  he  was  furnished  with  a  suit  of  clothes  and  an 
engrossed  certificate.  It  was  not  until  1824  that  it  was 
made  obligatory  on  residents  that  they  should  possess  the 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  357 

degree  of  doctor  in  medicine  before  they  could  obtain  the 
position. 

Morton  ^  presents  us  with  the  fohowing  account  of  a 
visit  to  the  Hospital  made  in  the  year  1787: 

"  When  we  came  to  the  Hospital,  Dr.  Clarkson  left  me,  and 
went  into  the  city  on  his  son's  horse.  Young  Mr.  Clarkson  con- 
ducted me  into  the  Hospital.  Dr.  Rush  arrived  in  a  few  minutes 
after.  This  building  is  in  the  form,  as  you  approach  it  from  the 
city,  of  an  inverted  ±.  It  is  surrounded  with  a  high  wall,  and  has 
back  of  it  a  very  large  kitchen-garden.  The  door  in  the  centre 
opens  into  a  large  hall.  On  each  end  are  apartments  for  the  nurses, 
cooks,  etc.  We  ascended  the  stairway  out  of  this  hall  into  another 
hall  in  the  second  story,  at  one  end  of  which  is  a  large  room,  which 
contains  a  fine  medical  library,  where  the  Directors  were  sitting, 
and  a  smaller  room,  where  the  medicine  is  placed.  On  the  oppo- 
site end  are  the  apartments  for  the  attending  Physicians.  The 
third  story  is  formed  in  the  same  manner.  On  one  side  of  this 
hall  is  the  Museum,  where  there  is  a  collection  of  skeletons  and 
anatomies.  ...  It  is  also  furnished  with  a  number  of  preparations 
and  preservations  relating  to  Physics  and  Surgery. 

"After  we  had  taken  a  view  of  the  Museum,  we  returned  to  the 
Upper  Hall,  where  several  Physicians  and  all  the  young  students 
in  Physic  in  the  City  were  waiting.  Dr.  Rush  then  began  his  ex- 
amination of  the  sick  attended  by  these  gentlemen,  which  I  judged 
to  be  between  twenty  and  thirty.  We  entered  the  upper  chambers 
of  the  sick,  which  is  the  leg  of  the  ±.  It  is  a  spacious  room,  finely 
ventilated  with  numerous  large  windows  on  both  sides.  There  were 
two  tiers  of  beds,  with  their  heads  towards  the  walls,  and  a  chair 
and  small  table  between  them.  The  room  was  exceedingly  clean 
and  nice,  the  beds  and  bedding  appeared  of  good  quality,  and  the 
most  profound  silence  and  order  were  preserved  upon  the  Doctor's 
entering  the  room.  There  were  only  women  and  about  forty  in 
number.  Dr.  Rush  makes  his  visits  with  a  great  deal  of  formality. 
He  is  attended  by  the  Physician  who  gives  him  an  account  of 
everything  material  since  he  saw  them  last,  and  by  the  Apothecary 
of  the  Hospital  who  minutes  his  Prescriptions.  In  every  case 
worthy  of  notice,  he  addresses  the  young  Physicians,  points  out 
its  nature,  the  probable  tendency,  and  the  reason  for  the  mode  of 

'  Abstracted  from  the  Journal  of  Rev.  Manasseh  Cutler,  Phila- 
delphia, 1787,  vol.  i.  p.  253.  Memoirs  of  Matthew  Clarkson,  1735- 
1800.     Phil.,  1890. 


358  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

treatment  which  he  pursues.  On  this  occasion  the  Doctor  was 
particularly  attentive  and  complaisant  to  me,  and  seemed  to  consider 
me  as  a  Physician. 

"  From  this  room  we  went  to  the  next  below  it,  which  is  in  every 
respect  similar.  It  is  appropriated  to  the  men.  He  began,  as  before, 
on  one  side,  and  went  around  the  room.  Every  patient  is  on  his 
own  bed  or  chair.  Most  of  the  cases  were  chronic,  many  of  them 
swellings  and  ulcerations,  and  some  of  them  very  singular;  but  I 
have  not  time  to  describe  them.  Their  dressings  were  all  ready  to 
be  taken  off  and  exposed  to  view  the  instant  the  Doctor  came  to 
them.  These  he  imputed  to  their  drinking  spirituous  liquors,  and 
did  not  fail  to  remind  them  of  it.  He  told  me  the  greater  pro- 
portion of  his  cases  in  the  city  were  similar  cases,  and  originated 
from  the  same  cause.  There  were  between  forty  and  fifty  in  this 
room.  We  next  took  a  view  of  the  Maniacs.  Their  cells  are  in 
the  lower  story  which  is  partly  underground.  These  cells  are  about 
ten  feet  square,  made  as  strong  as  a  prison.  On  the  back  part  is 
a  long  entry,  from  which  a  door  opens  into  each  of  them ;  in  each 
door  is  a  hole  large  enough  to  give  them  food,  etc.,  which  is  closed 
with  a  little  door  secured  with  strong  bolts.  On  the  opposite  side 
is  a  window,  and  large  iron  grates  within  to  prevent  their  breaking 
the  glass.  They  can  be  darkened  at  pleasure.  Here  were  both 
men  and  women,  between  twenty  and  thirty  in  number.  Some  of 
them  have  beds ;  most  of  them  clean  straw.  Some  of  them  were 
extremely  fierce  and  raving,  nearly  or  quite  naked ;  some  singing 
and  dancing;  some  in  despair;  some  were  dumb  and  would  not 
open  their  mouths;  others  incessantly  talking.  It  was  curious  in- 
deed to  see  in  what  different  strains  their  distraction  ra^ed.  This 
would  have  been  a  melancholy  scene  indeed,  had  it  not  been  that 
there  was  every  possible  relief  afforded  them  in  the  power  of  man. 
Every  thing  about  them,  notwithstanding  the  labor  and  trouble  it 
must  have  required,  was  neat  and  clean.  From  this  distressing 
view  of  what  human  nature  is  liable  to,  and  the  pleasing  evidence 
of  what  humanity  and  benevolence  can  do,  we  returned  to  the 
room  where  the  Directors  were.  .  .  .  Such  is  the  elegance  of  these 
buildings,  the  care  and  attention  to  the  sick,  the  spacious  and  clean 
apartments,  and  the  perfect  order  in  every  thing,  that  it  seemed 
more  like  a  palace  than  a  hospital,  and  one  would  almost  be  tempted 
to  be  sick,  if  they  could  be  so  well  provided  for." 

Another  visitor  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  whose 
account  of  it  is  transcribed  by  Dr.  Morton,  was  M.  de 
Warville.    He  saw  the  Hospital  in  1788,  and  wrote, — 


T   UK        -fit.  t>^l>   .>••^V••r  <  .1'     riT.\IM..  ^ 

'  )i  ;.!.  I     r  llr.  M  Ai'i'i  M  ss  -M    .    ■■^   ■•>  >>  •l.K',,< 

I    N     1    N     Ol        1    til.     '  '  •      .  .  ■      r    I\    I  , 

.--I  A  ^.1     I'.-  1  \   \  1-  r- 


K 


^"-*^^^-"'^MiiiMiiiii-ir'^-^-"tf»'f 


Corner-stone  of  tlit-  Heniis\  1\  aiiia  Hospital. 


^^^, 


''^'•^ofhrmandlwi^^^^^ 


Seal  of  tlie  Pennsylvania  Hospital. 
(From  M<..rton's  "History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.") 


36o  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

now  understand  the  term,  to  be  founded  in  the  English 
colonies  in  North  America  was  the  New  York  Hospital. 
The  first  mention  of  any  project  for  the  founding  of  a 
hospital  in  that  city  is  to  be  found  in  a  discourse  delivered 
by  Dr.  Middleton  in  King's  (now  Columbia)  College 
on  November  3,  1769.  He  ascribes  the  honor  of  its  first 
suggestion  to  Dr.  Bard,  saying, — 

"  The  necessity  and  usefulness  of  a  public  infirmary,  has  been  so 
warmly  and  pathetically  set  forth,  in  a  discourse  delivered  by  Dr. 
Samuel  Bard,  at  the  commencement  in  May  last,  that  his  excellency, 
Sir  Henry  Moore,  immediately  set  on  foot  a  subscription  for  that 
purpose,  to  which  himself  and  most  of  the  gentlemen  present  liber- 
ally contributed.  His  excellency  also  recommended  it,  in  the  most 
pressing  manner  to  the  assembly  of  the  province,  as  an  object 
worthy  of  their  attention ;  and  the  corporation  of  the  city  have 
given  assurances  of  granting  a  very  valuable  and  commodious  lot 
of  ground  for  erecting  the  building  upon ;  so  that  there  is  now, 
almost  a  certain  prospect  of  this  benevolent  and  humane  foundation 
soon  taking  place.  And  as  it  is  to  be  on  the  most  catholic  and 
unexceptionable  plan,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  that  it  will  meet  with  the 
countenance  and  encouragement  of  every  compassionate  and  good 
member  of  society,  whatever  party  or  denomination  he  may  choose 
to  be  distinguished  by,  on  other  occasions." 

The  speech  of  Dr.  Bard  in  which  he  set  forth  the  neces- 
sity for  an  infirmary  has  not  descended  to  us. 

In  1770  Drs.  Peter  Middleton,  John  Jones,  and  Samuel 
Bard  presented  a  petition  to  Lieutenant-Governor  Cad- 
wallader  Colden,  who  was  himself  a  physician,  request- 
ing a  charter  of  incorporation  for  the  Hospital. 

This  charter  was  granted  July  13,  1771.  It  incor- 
porated a  number  of  prominent  inhabitants  of  New  York 
as  "  The  Society  of  the  Hospital  in  the  City  of  New 
York  in  America."  A  board  of  governors  was  named, 
consisting  of  twenty-six  of  the  incorporators,  and 
these  gentlemen  held  their  first  meeting  on  July  25, 
1771. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  361 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  Dr.  Fothergill,  of  Lon- 
don, is  one  of  the  incorporators.  He  had  been  one  of  the 
most  generous  benefactors  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
presenting  them  with  books  for  their  Library  and  pic- 
tures and  casts  to  illustrate  the  study  of  anatomy.  Not 
only  was  he  thus  prominently  connected  with  thi.  found- 
ing of  the  two  first  hospitals  in  this  country,  but  he  aided 
many  young  medical  men  from  America  in  their  indi- 
vidual labors  in  the  study  of  medicine  abroad,  and  we 
find  Thomas  Penn  donating  a  chemical  apparatus  to  the 
newly-founded  Medical  Department  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  upon  his  recommendation. 

Drs.  Middleton,  Bard,  and  Jones  were  probably  the 
three  most  eminent  medical  men  of  their  day  in  New 
York. 

Brief  sketches  of  their  careers  have  already  been  fur- 
nished in  the  account  of  their  connection  with  the  found- 
ing of  the  Medical  School  of  King's  College,  New  York. 
They  fully  realized  how  essential  a  hospital  would  be 
as  an  adjunct  to  the  medical  college  they  were  estab- 
lishing, and  they  pushed  both  projects  with  all  the  power 
at  their  command.  They  were  all  more  or  less  prominent 
in  civic  life  and  stood  high  in  the  esteem  of  their  fellow- 
citizens,  consequently  their  labors  were  more  likely  to 
prove  successful  than  they  would  have  been  if  there  had 
been  nothing  back  of  their  efforts  but  their  standing  as 
medical  men. 

Dr.  Fothergill  and  Sir  William  Duncan  succeeded  in 
raising  a  considerable  amount  of  money  in  London  for 
the  use  of  the  Hospital,  and  in  1772  the  New  York  Legis- 
lature granted  it  an  annual  allowance  of  eight  hundred 
pounds  for  twenty  years. 

Committees  of  the  Governors  were  appointed  to  visit 
the  various  wards  in  the  city  and  solicit  subscriptions; 


362  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

the  clergy  were  asked  to  seek  the  aid  of  their  congrega- 
tions. In  1774  the  Governors  asked  householders  to 
allow  persons  in  the  employ  of  the  Hospital  to  sweep  their 
chimneys  and  to  donate  to  the  Hospital  what  the  expense 
would  otherwise  have  been  to  them.  Mr.  Douglass,  the 
theatre  manager,  gave  the  Hospital  a  benefit.  The  Earl 
of  Sterling  sent  the  Governors  twelve  Delaware  lottery 
tickets,  but  no  prize  was  drawn  by  any  of  them.* 

In  1773  the  Board  of  Governors  purchased  from  a  Mrs. 
Barclay  and  a  Mr.  Rutgers  a  lot  suitable  for  the  erection 
of  the  Hospital,  and  on  the  27th  of  July,  1773,  the  foun- 
dation was  laid,  but  before  the  completion  of  the  build- 
ings they  were  almost  totally  destroyed  by  fire  on  Febru- 
ary 28,  1775. 

These  buildings  had  been  constructed  after  plans  which 
had  been  procured  by  Dr.  Jones  during  a  trip  to  Europe 
in  1772.  The  only  knowledge  we  have  of  the  character 
of  these  plans  is  derived  from  a  book  on  military  surgery 
published  by  Dr.  Jones  in  1775.  In  it  he  speaks  of  the 
unhygienic  arrangements  of  the  wards  of  the  Hotel  Dieu 
in  Paris,  and  then  says, — 

"  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  hospital  lately  built  in  the  city  of 
New  York  will  have  fewer  objections  to  its  plan  than  any  hospital 
hitherto  constructed.  The  principal  wards,  which  are  to  contain  no 
more  than  eight  beds,  are  thirty-six  feet  in  length,  twenty-four  feet 
wide  and  eighteen  high.  They  are  all  well  ventilated,  not  only  from 
the  opposite  disposition  of  the  windows,  but  by  proper  openings  in 
the  side  walls,  and  the  doors  open  into  a  long  passage  or  gallery, 
thoroughly  ventilated  from  north  to  south."  ^ 

*  Centenary  Address  delivered  before  the  Society  of  the  New 
York  Hospital,  by  James  William  Beekman,  July  24,  1871. 

°  His  description  of  the  Hotel  Dieu  is  horrifying :  "  In  Paris 
it  is  supposed  that  one  third  of  all  who  die  there  die  in  hos- 
pitals. The  Hotel  Dieu — a  vast  building,  situated  in  the  middle 
of    that    great    city — receives    about    twenty-two    thousand    persons 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  363 

The  original  estimates  for  the  building  called  for  an 
expenditure  of  about  seventeen  thousand  dollars.  The 
structure  was  to  be  built  of  stone. 

Although  almost  completely  destroyed  by  fire  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1775,  yet  means  were  procured,  and  the  work  of 
reconstruction  so  vigorously  pushed  that  the  New  York 
Provincial  Congress  took  possession  of  them  on  April  2, 
1776,  to  use  as  barracks.  A  ditch  was  dug  about  the 
Hospital  twelve  feet  wide  and  seven  feet  deep  for  defen- 
sive purposes. 

Beekman,  in  his  "  Centenary  Address,"  states  that  the 
first  surgical  operation  performed  in  the  Hospital  was  an 
amputation  of  the  arm,  performed  by  Dr.  Samuel  Drowne, 
a  surgeon's  mate  in  the  general  hospital  of  the  Continen- 
tal army.  This  was  in  July,  1776.  In  a  letter  speaking 
of  this  amputation,  Dr.  Drowne  mentioned  that  "  one 
ball  came  into  the  hospital  yard,  struck  the  ground  at  a 
little  distance  from  us,  and  bounded  through  ye  board 
fence."  Probably  the  buildings  were  not  long  used  as 
barracks  but  were  soon  converted  into  their  original  pur- 
pose, as  Drowne  says  the  amputation  was  performed  "  at 
the  new  City  Hospital,  which  had  been  fitted  for  ye 
wounded."  When  the  Americans  evacuated  New  York 
in  August,   1776,  the  British  entered  the  city  and  con- 


annually,  one-fifth  of  which  number  die  every  year.  It  is  im- 
possible for  any  man  of  humanity  to  walk  through  the  long  wards 
of  this  crowded  hospital  without  a  mixture  of  horror  and  commisera- 
tion at  the  sad  spectacle  of  misery  which  presents  itself.  The  beds 
are  placed  in  triple  rows,  with  four  and  six  patients  in  each  bed ;  and 
I  have  more  than  once  in  the  morning  rounds,  found  the  dead  lying 
with  the  living;  for,  notwithstanding  the  great  assiduity  and  ten- 
derness of  the  nurses,  some  of  whom  are  women  of  family,  who  take 
the  veil  and  piously  devote  themselves  to  that  office,  yet  it  is  almost 
impossible,  from  the  vast  number  of  patients,  to  bestow  timely 
assistance. upon  every  individual." 


364  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

verted  the  Hospital  buildings  into  barracks  for  the  Hes- 
sians. 

Throug-hout  the  war  and  during  the  troublous  years 
immediately  ensuing  the  Society  of  the  Hospital  in  New- 
York  contrived  to  hold  annual  meetings  for  the  election 
of  officers,  although  the  buildings  were  not  used  for  hos- 
pital purposes  by  the  Society  till  January,  1791. 

In  March,  1785,  the  Society  allowed  some  poor  Scotch 
emigrants  to  lodge  temporarily  in  the  buildings,  which 
occupation  seems  to  have  continued  until  June  of  that 
year.  In  the  winter  of  1785,  Dr.  Bailey  was  allowed  to 
occupy  several  rooms  for  dissecting  purposes.  There 
is  a  record  of  Dr.  Bailey's  having  operated  on  patients  in 
one  of  the  rooms.  The  State  Legislature  held  some  of 
its  meetings  in  the  buildings.  The  most  interesting,  how- 
ever, of  all  the  events  which  occurred  in  this  period  of  the 
Hospital's  history  was  the  famous  "  Doctors'  Mob"  riot, 
on  Sunday,  April  13,  1788.  This  was  the  result  of  igno- 
rant prejudice  against  the  dissection  of  the  human  body. 
Rumors  had  been  circulated  of  terrible  doings  by  doctors 
in  the  Hospital  buildings.  A  doctor  waved  a  dead  arm 
from  one  of  the  cadavers  at  a  boy  peeping  in  the  win- 
dows. An  angry  crowd  surrounded  the  Hospital  and 
stormed  the  buildings.  The  doctors  fled  to  the  city  jail 
for  refuge,  and  the  militia  were  called  out  to  protect  them. 
The  mob  attacked  the  jail.  The  celebrated  John  Jay  and 
Baron  Steuben  hastened  to  the  jail  and  endeavored  to 
reason  with  the  rioters.  Their  efforts  were  futile,  they 
themselves  being  assaulted.  Baron  Steuben  was  knocked 
down.  As  he  fell  he  cried  to  the  mayor,  James  Duane, 
"Fire,  Duane,  fire!"  The  militia  fired  a  volley,  which 
killed  seven  of  the  rioters  and  wounded  seven  or  eight. 
The  Governors  of  the  Hospital  disclaimed  all  responsi- 
bility for  the  occurrences  leading  to  this  disgraceful  affair, 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  365 

and  presented  a  bill  to  the  doctors  who  had  occupied  the 
Hospital  of  twenty-two  pounds  seven  shillings  ten  pence. 
The  doctors  were  also  ousted  from  the  buildings. 

In  April,  1790,  the  Governors  sought  the  advice  of  Drs. 
Samuel  Bard  and  Malachi  Treat  as  to  what  steps  should 
be  taken  for  devoting  the  Hospital  to  its  proper  purposes. 
They  also  appointed  a  committee  to  confer  with  the  gen- 
tlemen interested  in  the  recently  established  New  York 
Dispensary  as  to  how  the  two  organizations  might  best 
arrange  to  work  to  their  mutual  welfare.  On  the  3d  of 
January,  1791,  the  Hospital  was  finally  reopened  with 
eighteen  patients. 

There  was  no  restriction  placed  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
ailment  from  which  those  desirous  of  admittance  suf- 
fered. The  insane  were  admitted  along  with  the  mentally 
sound.  In  1798  the  Governors  in  a  memorial  to  the  State 
Legislature  say  that  their  Hospital  is  for  the  reception  of 
such  as  require  medical  treatment  or  chirurgical  manage- 
ment, for  maniacs,  and  for  women.^  In  this  same  memo- 
rial they  mention  that  the  students  of  Columbia  College 
derive  the  advantage  of  clinical  teaching  from  its  wards, 
and  that  the  Governors  have  voted  two  hundred  pounds 
for  the  foundation  of  a  library. 

The  Governors  used  to  meet  in  various  coffee-houses 
and  taverns,  and  sometimes  at  the  City  Hall,  until  their 
meeting  of  May  17,  1791,  which  was  held,  as  all  subse- 
quent ones  have  been,  in  the  Hospital. 

Beekman  gives  an  interesting  description  of  the  lot 
upon  which  the  Hospital  was  built.  The  Governors  pur- 
chased, in  1 77 1,  five  acres  of  the  Rutgers  farm,  which 
was  spoken  of  as  lying  "  in  the  meadows  near  the  Fresh 
Water."     He  says, — 

•  Beekman,  loc.  cit. 


^66  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

"  Broadway  then  ended  abruptly  in  the  fields  at  Barley  street, 
now  Duane  street.  The  spot  selected  for  our  hospital  was  upon 
a  spur  or  hill,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  marshes.  The  water 
of  two  ponds  or  kolcks  frequently  overflowed  the  meadows  where 
now  is  the  corner  of  Pearl  and  Chatham  streets,  so  that  ferry-boats 
were  used ;  a  bridge  was  afterwards  built  there.  Rutgers  had 
suffered  so  lamentably  with  fever  and  ague  that  he  had,  some  years 
before,  prayed  the  king  for  a  better  title  to  his  marshes,  so  that  he 
might  convey  a  fee  to  somebody  willing  to  drain  them,  for  the 
inhabitants  lost  one-third  of  their  time  by  sickness." 

In  1780  the  ground  back  of  the  Hospital  was  chosen 
as  the  most  retired  spot  on  which  to  fight  a  duel.  Anent 
duels,  in  1799,  one  of  the  house-surgeons  was  repri- 
manded for  practising  outside  the  Hospital  and  being  too 
often  absent.  He  challenged  Dr.  Hosack  to  meet  him 
"  at  Hobuck."  Dr.  Hosack  forwarded  the  challenge  to 
the  Board  of  Governors,  whereupon  the  surgeon  posted 
up  an  abusive  paper  in  the  Coffee-House,  and  insisted  on 
an  apology  from  Dr.  Hosack.  The  Board  of  Governors' 
reply  was  to  dismiss  him  from  the  Hospital.'^ 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  prior  to  the  Revolution  the 
Provincial  Legislature  had  given  the  Hospital  an  annual 
grant.  Of  course  this  lapsed  after  the  war,  but  in  1788 
the  State  Legislature  passed  a  bill  granting  the  Hospital 
corporation  eight  hundred  pounds,  to  be  paid  to  it  during 
the  four  years  ensuing  from  February  i,  1788,  out  of 
funds  derived  from  the  excise  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
In  1792  the  Legislature  passed  another  act  granting  the 
Hospital  two  thousand  pounds  a  year  for  five  years,  again 
making  it  payable  out  of  the  excise.  On  March  31,  1795, 
an  act  was  passed  repealing  the  act  of  1792  as  regarded 
the  future  payments  to  the  Hospital,  but  granting  it 
instead  four  thousand  pounds  annually  for  five  years,  pay- 
able out  of  the  duties  on  sales  at  public  auction  in  the 
city  of  New  York. 

^  Beekman,  loc.  cit. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  367 

On  April  11,  1796,  this  was  supplemented  by  an  ad- 
ditional grant  of  one  thousand  pounds  a  year  for  four 
years,  payable  out  of  the  same  fund.  On  March  20, 
1 80 1,  the  annual  allowance  of  twelve  thousand  five  hun- 
dred dollars  was  continued  for  five  years,  from  February 
I,  1800. 

On  April  i,  1796,  in  an  act  passed  by  the  Legislature 
for  the  regulation  of  the  port  of  New  York,  the  harbor 
master  was  ordered  to  pay  the  penalties  derived  from 
certain  fines  to  the  Hospital. 

On  March  30,  1797,  an  act  was  passed  establishing  a 
lazaretto  for  the  port  of  New  York,  and  in  it  the  masters 
and  wardens  of  the  port  were  authorized  to  receive  of  the 
masters,  officers,  seamen,  and  passengers  of  every  vessel 
entering  the  port  of  New  York  a  certain  sum  for  each 
person.  The  money  thus  collected  was  ordered  to  be 
turned  over  to  the  commissioners  of  health,  to  be  applied 
to  the  relief  of  sick  seamen  and  foreigners  who  should 
be  admitted  to  the  Lazaretto,  and  if  any  surplus  should 
remain  it  was  to  be  paid  over  to  the  New  York  Hospital, 
the  Board  of  Governors  of  which  were  to  apply  it  to  the 
relief  of  any  sick  seamen  or  foreigners  who  might  be 
patients  of  the  Hospital. 

In  1799  the  Treasury  Department  of  the  United  States 
entered  into  an  agreement  with  the  Hospital  authorities 
by  which  sick  and  disabled  seamen  at  the  port  of  New 
York  were  to  be  received  into  the  Hospital.  The  collec- 
tor of  the  port  was  to  pay  the  Hospital  three  dollars  a 
week  for  each  seaman  thus  received. 

In  1 80 1  the  Governors  of  the  New  York  Lying-in  Hos- 
pital, which  had  been  founded  in  the  year  1798,  paid  over 
to  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  New  York  Hospital  all 
the  funds  in  their  possession,  the  latter  institution  agree- 
ing to  open  a  maternity  ward. 


368  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

The  connection  between  the  Hospital  and  Columbisi 
College  was  very  close,  many  of  the  professors  in  the 
College  being  on  the  staff  of  the  Hospital,  and  the  medi- 
cal students  having  the  privilege  of  availing  themselves 
of  the  clinical  facilities  of  the  Hospital  wards.  In  Au- 
gust, 1796,  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  Hospital  ap- 
propriated five  hundred  dollars  towards  the  founding  of 
a  medical  library,  and  the  various  professors  of  the  Col- 
lege contributed  books  from  their  private  libraries  and 
m.oney  from  the  fees  collected  by  them  for  instructing 
students.  In  1800  the  Hospital  acquired  by  purchase  the 
library  of  Dr.  Romayne,  and  in  1805  the  Medical  Society 
of  New  York  presented  the  Hospital  with  its  library,  on 
condition  that  they  and  such  of  their  sons  as  became 
physicians  should  always  have  free  use  of  the  Hospital's 
Library.  In  the  same  year  the  Board  of  Governors  agreed 
to  set  aside  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  annually  for 
the  purchase  of  books  for  the  Library.  Soon  after  they 
purchased  the  botanical  library  of  Dr.  Hosack.  In  181 1 
the  Library  contained  about  three  thousand  volumes. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  Hospital  admitted  the  insane 
to  its  wards,  but  it  was  soon  found  that  there  was  not 
adequate  accommodation  to  properly  care  for  them.  In 
1806  the  Governors  applied  to  the  Legislature  for  aid 
in  erecting  a  separate  institution  for  the  care  of  the  insane. 
This  application  was  successful,  and  on  the  15th  of  July, 
1808,  the  Lunatic  Asylum  of  the  New  York  Hospital 
was  opened  with  sixty-seven  inmates.  This  asylum  was 
erected  at  a  cost  of  fifty-six  thousand  dollars,  and  the 
Bloomingdale  Insane  Asylum  is  its  lineal  descendant. 
The  following  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  latter 
was  founded  is  of  interest.  It  is  contained  in  the  "  Ac- 
count of  the  New  York  Hospital,"  published  by  the  Hos- 
pital in  1820. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  369 

"  In  consequence  of  a  communication  made  to  the  Governors  in 
April,  181 5,  by  Thomas  Eddy,  stating  the  advantages  that  might 
be  produced,  by  introducing  a  course  of  moral  treatment,  for  the 
lunatic  patients,  more  extensive  than  had  hitherto  been  practised 
in  this  country,  and  similar  to  that  pursued  at  '  The  Retreat,'  near 
York,  in  England ;  and  proposing,  that  a  number  of  acres  of  ground, 
near  the  city,  should  be  purchased,  and  suitable  buildings  erected  for 
the  purpose;  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  Governors,  to 
consider  of  the  plan  proposed,  and  to  report  their  opinion  thereon. 
This  committee,  having  approved  of  the  plan,  and  recommended  its 
adoption,  the  Governors  resolved  to  carry  it  into  effect,  if  they 
could  obtain  the  aid  of  the  Legislature.  Application  having  been 
made  for  that  purpose,  an  act  was  passed  the  17th  of  April,  1816, 
granting  to  the  Hospital,  the  yearly  sum  of  $10,000,  until  the  year 
1857,  to  enable  the  Governors  to  erect  further  and  more  extensive 
accommodations  for  insane  patients.  Thirty-nine  acres  of  land,  on 
the  Haerlem  heights,  about  seven  miles  from  the  city,  were  accord- 
ingly purchased,  at  $240  per  acre,  as  a  site  for  the  proposed  insti- 
tution. The  distance  being  thought  by  some,  to  be  greater  than 
was  desirable,  twenty  acres  of  ground  on  the  East  River,  two  miles 
nearer  the  settled  parts  of  the  city,  were  purchased;  but  after  a 
more  particular  examination,  it  was  found  not  to  be  adapted,  in  all 
respects  to  the  plan  contemplated ;  and  it  was  afterwards  sold,  at 
a  profit  of  two  thousand  dollars.  After  inspecting  the  different 
places  on  York  Island,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  East  River, 
which  were  supposed  to  afford  suitable  situations  for  such  an  estab- 
lishment, it  was  determined,  on  a  comparison  of  them  with  the 
one  already  purchased  at  Harlem,  that  the  latter  was,  on  the  whole, 
preferable.  On  exploring  the  ground,  however,  for  the  purpose  of 
laying  the  foundation  of  the  intended  building,  the  soil  was  dis- 
covered to  be  generally  wet,  covering  a  stratum  of  hard  granite, 
lying  about  two  feet  below  the  surface ;  it  was  therefore  deemed 
unfit  for  the  purpose.  Another  piece  of  ground,  not  far  from  the 
same  spot,  and  nearer  to  the  Hudson,  containing  about  twenty-six 
acres,  fronting  on  the  Bloomingdale  road,  near  the  seven  mile  stone, 
after  being  thoroughly  explored,  was  found  to  be  remarkably  dry 
and  pleasant,  and  from  its  elevated  situation,  affording  an  extensive 
and  delightful  view  of  the  river,  and  the  adjacent  country.  This 
place  was  purchased  at  five  hundred  dollars  per  acre,  and  some 
small  pieces  of  ground  adjoining,  have  since  been  added,  making 
the  whole  quantity  "]"]  acres  2r.  34p.  On  this  spot,  the  cornerstone 
of  a  building  for  the  accommodation  of  lunatics,  was  laid,  on  the 
7th  day  of  May,  1818." 

24 


370 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


In  1804  there  were  six  physicians  and  four  surgeons 
on  the  attending  staff  of  the  Hospital.  One  physician  was 
required  to  visit  every  medical  patient,  afflicted  with  any 
acute  disease,  at  least  once  a  day,  and  oftener  if  necessarv ; 
and  every  medical  patient,  without  distinction,  must  be 
visited  at  least  three  times  a  week.  The  surgeons  were 
required  to  visit  the  Hospital  at  least  three  times  a  week 
and  every  surgical  patient  at  least  once  a  week.  These 
services  were  gratuitously  performed. 

A  house-physician  and  a  house-surgeon  were  appointed 
each  year  to  serve  for  the  ensuing  twelve  months.  The 
qualifications  required  in  those  desirous  of  filling  these 
positions  were,  that  they  should  be  at  least  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  have  been  pupils  of  a  practising  physician 
or  surgeon  for  three  years,  during  which  time  they  must 
have  attended  a  complete  course  of  lectures  in  one  of  the 
colleges,  have  attended  the  daily  practice  of  the  Hospital 
for  one  year,  and  must  be  examined  by  the  physicians 
and  surgeons,  and  produce  ample  testimonials  of  their 
good  moral  character.  They  were  required  to  make  daily 
rounds  of  the  wards  in  the  morning  and  evening  and  to 
be  prepared  to  report  upon  the  state  of  their  patients  to 
the  visiting  physicians  and  surgeons  at  their  visits. 

All  appointments  to  the  medical  staff  were  made  by  the 
Board  of  Governors.  There  were  twenty-six  of  the  lat- 
ter, who  gave  their  services  without  remuneration. 

The  other  house-officers  were  a  superintendent,  a  ma- 
tron, and  an  apothecary.  All  of  these  depended  for  their 
appointments  on  the  Board  of  Governors.  The  apothe- 
cary had  to  undergo  a  preliminary  examination  at  the 
hands  of  the  visiting  physicians  and  surgeons  and  be 
recommended  by  them  to  the  Board  of  Governors  before 
receiving  his  appointment. 

The  Lunatic  Asylum  was  under  the  charge  of  one 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  371 

physician.  The  first  to  hold  this  important  position  was 
Dr.  Bruce,  and  he  occupied  it  for  many  years  with  great 
abihty. 

On  March  9,  1810,  the  Legislature  passed  an  act 
changing  the  title  of  the  corporation  from  "  The  Society 
of  the  Hospital  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  America"  to 
"  The  Society  of  the  New  York  Hospital"  on  the  re- 
quest of  the  Society. 

The  Humane  Society  of  Philadelphia. 

This  useful  organization  came  into  existence  in  1780, 
in  the  midst  of  the  turmoil  incident  to  the  Revolutionary 
War,  and  remains  yet  alive  as  witness  to  the  fostering 
care  of  its  successive  generations  of  members. 

Its  objects  were  the 

"  recovery  of  drowned  persons,  and  of  those  whose  animation  may 
be  suspended  from  other  causes,  as  breathing  air  contaminated  by 
burning  charcoal,  hanging,  exposure  to  the  choke  damp  of  wells, 
drinking  cold  water  while  warm  in  summer,  strokes  of  the  sun, 
lightning,  swallowing  laudanum." 

The  Society  served  in  reality  all  the  purposes  of  a  first- 
aid  or  emergency  organization. 

It  offered  prizes  at  one  time  for  the  best  dissertations 
on  the  means  of  restoring  life  to  persons  apparently  dead 
by  drowning.  These  theses  were  to  be  written  in  Eng- 
lish, French,  or  Latin,  and  the  prizes  were  to  be  awarded 
by  the  "  Medical  Professors  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania." 

The  Philadelphia  Dispensary. 

The  first  effort  to  found  a  dispensary  for  the  poor  in 
Philadelphia  was  made  in  1786,  and  resulted  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Philadelphia  Dispensary,  which,  however, 
was  not  chartered  until  1796. 


Z7^ 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


Every  person  who  should  pay  one  guinea  a  year  could 
become  a  contributor,  or  on  paying  ten  guineas  down 
would  receive  a  certificate  of  life-membership.  Twelve 
managers  were  chosen  annually  from  among  the  con- 
tributors, and  the  Managers  annually  appointed  six  at- 
tending and  four  consulting  physicians  and  surgeons, 
a  treasurer,  and  an  apothecary.  The  attending  physi- 
cians were  to  be  on  duty  two  months  in  each  year,  and 
their  services  were  rendered  for  nothing. 

In  1800  the  Managers  purchased  a  lot  of  ground  on 
Fifth  Street,  and  there  the  Dispensary  has  made  its  home 
ever  since,  continuing  the  good  work  begun  so  long  ago. 

Nevv^  York  City  Dispensary. 
On  the  4th  of  January,  1791,  a  number  of  citizens  of 
New  York  held  a  meeting  at  the  City  Hall  in  order  that 
they  might  devise  some  method  of  providing  medical  as- 
sistance to  the  worthy  poor.  The  Medical  Society  of  New 
York,  under  the  leadership  of  its  president,  Dr.  John 
Bard,  was  very  forward  in  the  movement.  A  constitu- 
tion for  the  association  was  agreed  upon.  The  Hon. 
Isaac  Roosevelt,  Esq.,  was  chosen  as  president,  and  Drs. 
Richard  Bayley  and  Samuel  Bard  made  senior  physicians. 
Twelve  other  physicians,  all  members  of  the  Medical 
Society,  were  selected  to  give  free  medical  advice  in 
different  districts  of  the  city.  In  the  account  of  the  Dis- 
pensary^ from  which  I  quote  the  following  paragraph 
from  their  constitution  is  given : 

"  Every  person  who  shall  pay  annually  into  the  hands  of  the 
treasurer  two  dollars  shall  be  a  member  of  this  institution,  and  be 
entitled  to  have  two  patients  at  one  time  on  the  Dispensary  list, 
and  for  every  two  dollars  and  a  half,  which  shall  be  annually  paid 
by  any  subscriber  over  and  above  five  dollars  per  annum,  such  sub- 

*  American  Medical  and  Philosophical  Register,  1814,  vol.  iv. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  373 

scriber  shall  be  entitled  to  have  one  other  patient  on  the  Dispensary- 
list,  and  every  subscriber  who  shall  subscribe  and  pay  fifty  dollars 
shall  be  a  member  for  life,  and  be  entitled  to  have  two  patients 
always  on  the  list." 

On  the  death  of  Isaac  Roosevelt,  in  1794,  the  Rev. 
John  Rodgers  was  elected  president.  He  resigned  in  July, 
1 810,  and  was  succeeded  by  General  Matthew  Clarkson. 

In  April,  1805,  the  Legislature  passed  an  act  incor- 
porating the  Dispensary. 

In  the  yearly  report  presented  December  24,  1795,  the 
total  number  of  patients  treated  is  stated  to  have  been 
five  hundred  and  thirty-six.  The  epidemic  which  visited 
New  York  in  1795,  1797,  and  1798,  and  the  yellow 
fever  of  1803,  greatly  increased  the  distress  among  the 
poor  of  the  city  and  added  to  the  amount  of  work  re- 
quired of  the  Dispensary.  The  trustees  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  suggest  how  its  work  might  be  made  more 
effectual.  This  committee  having  reported,  the  trustees 
adopted  its  recommendations.  The  city  was  divided  into 
four  districts  and  four  physicians  appointed  to  take  charge 
of  all  the  patients  therein.  An  apothecary  was  appointed 
to  put  up  the  prescriptions  of  these  physicians. 

In  1805  the  Dispensary  amalgamated  its  work  with 
that  of  the  Kine-Pock  Institution.  The  New  York  Insti- 
tution for  the  Inoculation  of  the  Kine  Pock  had  been 
organized  on  the  nth  of  January,  1802.  Its  object  was 
to  promote  the  substitution  of  cowpox  inoculation  instead 
of  smallpox,  and  to  preserve  a  constant  supply  of  genuine 
vaccine  material.  The  first  vaccine  physician  appointed 
after  this  union  was  Dr.  Valentine  Seaman. 

The  usefulness  of  the  Dispensary  grew  rapidly.  In 
181 1  fourteen  hundred  and  forty-six  patients  were  treated 
for  various  complications  and  one  thousand  and  sixteen 
had  received  free  vaccination. 


374  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

In  1 8 10  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  New  York 
presented  the  Board  of  Trustees  with  a  lot  of  land  on 
Tryon  Street,  to  be  used  for  the  erection  of  a  suitable 
dispensary  building. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  375 


CHAPTER    VII  I. 

HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDICAL    SOCIETIES    FOUNDED    BEFORE 
THE    YEAR    l8oO.^ 

The  first  association  of  physicians  into  a  society  of 
which  there  is  any  record  in  America  was  in  Boston. 
It  existed  from  1735  until  at  least  1741,  when  it  disap- 
peared in  the  sands  of  time.  We  know  nothing  of  it 
except  what  follows.  On  February  18,  1735,  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Douglass,  of  Boston,  wrote  to  Dr.  Cadwallader  Col- 
den,  of  New  York,^ — 

"  We  have  lately  in  Boston  formed  a  medical  society,  of  which, 
this  gentleman  [Dr.  Clark,  who  carried  the  letter],  a  member 
thereof,  can  give  you  a  particular  account.  We  design  from  time 
to  time  to  publish  some  short  pieces ;  there  is  now  ready  for  the 
press  number  one,  with  this  title  page : — 

"  Number  One. 
Medical  Memoirs. 
Containing 
"  I.  A  miscellany.     Practical  introduction. 
"  2.  A  history  of  the  dysentery  epidemical  in  Boston  in  1734. 
"  3.  Some  account  of  a  gutta-serena  in  a  young  woman. 
"  4.  The  anatomical  inspection  of  a  spina  ventosa  in  the  vertebras 
of  the  loins  in  a  young  woman. 

"  5.  Some  practical  comments  or  remarks  on  the  writings  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Sydenham. 

"  Published  by  a  Medical  Society  in  Boston,  New  England." 

'  A  considerable  part  of  this  chapter  was  published  in  the  Phila- 
delphia Medical  Journal  for  January  27,  1900.  I  am  indebted  to  that 
journal  for  permission  to  republish  it. 

^  Massachusetts  Historical  Society's  Collections,  fourth  series, 
vol.  ii. 


376  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

This  title-page  indicates  a  most  interesting  number, 
but  it  was,  unfortunately,  for  some  unknown  reason, 
never  published. 

Dr.  Douglass,  in  1736,  published  a  pamphlet  called 
"  The  Practical  History  of  a  New  Epidemical  Eruptive 
Miliary  Fever,  with  an  Angina  Ulcusculosa  which  pre- 
vailed in  Boston,  New  England,  in  the  years  1735  and 
1736."  This  was  dedicated^  "To  a  Medical  Society  in 
Boston,"  and  he  began  his  preface  as  follows : 

"  Gentlemen,  This  Piece  of  Medical  History  does  naturally  ad- 
dress itself  to  you,  considering  that  I  have  the  pleasure  of  being  one 
of  your  number,  that  you  have  been  fellow  labourers  in  the  manage- 
ment of  this  distemper,  and  therefore  competent  judges  of  this  per- 
formance, and  that  where  difficult  or  extraordinary  cases  have  oc- 
curred in  any  of  your  private  practice,  I  was  favoured  to  visit  the 
Patients  in  order  to  make  a  minute  Clinical  enquiry ;  in  short,  with- 
out your  assistance  this  piece  would  have  been  less  perfect,  and  not 
so  well  vouched." 

Green  mentions  a  long  communication  in  The  Boston 
Weekly  N ezvs-Letter  for  January  5,  1737,  addressed  "  To 
the  Judicious  and  Learned  President  and  Members  of  the 
Medical  Society  in  Boston,"  and  signed  "  Philanthropes." 
It  was  a  plan  for  the  regulation  by  law  of  the  practice 
of  medicine  in  Massachusetts. 

He  also  mentions  that  the  same  newspaper  for  Novem- 
ber 13,  1741,  contains  a  report  of  an  operation  for  stone 
in  the  bladder,  on  Joseph  Baker,  aged  six  years.  It  was 
performed  "  in  Presence  of  the  Medical  Society"  by  Dr. 
Sylvester  Gardiner.     It  began : 

"  A  Medical  Society  in  Boston,  New  England,  with  no  quackish 
view,  as  is  the  manner  of  some ;  but  for  the  Comfort  and  Benefit 
of  the  unhappy  and  miserable  Sufferers  by  the  excruciating  Pain, 
occasioned  by  a  Stone  in  the  Bladder,  do  publish  the  following 
Case." 

^  Green's  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  377 

The  above  facts,  gathered  by  Dr.  Green,  comprise  all 
our  knowledge  as  to  this  medical  society.  It  is  curious 
that  Thacher,  who  w^as  a  surgeon  in  the  Revolutionary 
army,  and  hence  old  enough  to  have  heard  of  it  by  tradi- 
tion, at  any  rate,  makes  absolutely  no  mention  of  its  ex- 
istence.    Josiah  Bartlett  ^  says  of  it, — 

"  The  first  information  of  physicians  in  an  associated  capacity  is 
in  the  preface  to  Douglass,  which  is  addressed  to  a  medical  society 
in  Boston ;  but  there  are  no  particulars  respecting  it.  A  gentleman 
(Dr.  James  Lloyd)  lately  deceased,  whose  memory  included  a  retro- 
spect of  sixty  years,  and  who  knew  the  author,  had  no  recollection 
of  its  existence.  It  was  probably  temporary,  for  conference  and 
consultation  on  a  distressing  epidemic  (cynanche  maligna)  which 
prevailed  at  that  time." 

Wickes  ^  found  in  the  library  of  the  New  York  Acad- 
emy of  Medicine  a  manuscript  with  the  following  title: 
"  An  Essay  on  the  nature  of  ye  malignant  Pleurisy  that 
proved  so  remarkably  fatal  to  the  Inhabitants  of  Hun- 
tington, Long  Island,  and  some  other  places  on  Long 
Island;  in  the  winter  of  the  year  1749,  Drawn  up  at  the 
request  of  a  Weekly  Society  of  Gentlemen  in  New  York, 
and  addressed  to  them  at  one  of  their  meetings,  by  Dr. 
Jno.  Bard,  New  York,  1749,"  and  as  in  the  text  the 
writer  speaks  of  the  epidemic  as  now  prevailing,  it  is  to 
be  inferred  the  society  existed  in  the  year  1749.  This  is 
the  only  mention  of  this  society  that  I  know  of,  but  it 
seems  authentic  enough  to  give  it  the  second  place  among 
such  bodies  in  their  order  of  foundation. 

In  1765  a  number  of  medical  men  in  Philadelphia 
formed  themselves  into  a  society  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Philadelphia  Medical  Society." 

*  Historical  Sketch  of  Medical  Science  in  Massachusetts,  Massa- 
chusetts Historical  Society's  Collections,  second  series,  vol.  i.  p.  105. 
°  History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey. 


378  THE   HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

It  enjoyed  a  brief  existence  of  three  years,  at  the  ex- 
piration of  which  period  it  merged  with  the  American 
Society  for  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge,  which  sub- 
sequently changed  its  name  to  the  American  Philosophical 
Society,  and  as  such  is  probably  the  best-known  scientific 
society  in  America  at  the  present  day.  When  the  societies 
united  the  members  of  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Society 
were  Drs.  Graeme,  Cadwalader,  Redman,  Morgan, 
Kearsley,  Clarkson,  Bayard,  Harris,  Rush,  Sowman, 
Glentworth,  and  Potts.  None  of  its  records  have  de- 
scended to  us. 


New  Jersey  Medical  Society. 

The  oldest  of  still  existing  medical  societies  is  the 
Medical  Society  of  New  Jersey. 

Wickes  ^  says  the  first  public  mention  of  its  foundation 
is  to  be  found  in  the  New  York  Mercury,  as  follows : 

"  A  considerable  number  of  the  Practitioners  of  Physic  and  Sur- 
gery in  East  New  Jersey,  having  agreed  to  form  a  Society  for  their 
mutual  improvement,  the  advancement  of  the  profession  and  pro- 
motion of  the  public  good,  and  desirous  of  extending  as  much  as 
possible  the  usefulness  of  their  scheme,  and  of  cultivating  the  ut- 
most harmony  and  friendship  with  their  brethren,  hereby  request 
and  invite  every  gentleman  of  the  profession  in  the  province,  that 
may  approve  of  their  design,  to  attend  their  first  meeting,  which 
will  be  held  at  Mr.  Duff's,  in  the  city  of  New  Brunswick,  on 
Wednesday  the  23rd  of  July,  at  which  time  and  place  the  Consti- 
tution and  Regulations  of  the  Society  are  to  be  settled  and  sub- 
scribed. 

"  East  New  Jersey,  June  27th,  1766." 

On  that  day  sixteen  physicians  met  and  drew  up  and 
adopted  the  following: 

'  History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey,  from  which  my  information 
concerning  it  is  entirely  derived. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  379 


"  Instruments  of  Association  and  Constitution 

OF   THE 

New  Jersey  Medical  Society. 

"  Whereas,  Medicine,  comprehending  properly  Physic  and  Sur- 
gery, is  one  of  the  most  useful  sciences  to  mankind,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  most  difficult  to  be  attained,  so  much  so  that,  indeed, 
perfection  therein  is  perhaps  never  to  be  acquired,  the  longest  life 
spent  in  its  pursuit  always  finding  something  new  to  occur,  and 
lamenting  something  still  wanting  to  perfect  the  art. 

"  And,  as  every  means,  therefore,  that  will  tend  to  enlarge  the 
stock  of  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  pursuit  of  this  science, 
should  be  eagerly  sought  after  and  prosecuted ;  and  whereas,  among 
those  gentlemen  of  particular  towns,  neighbourhoods  or  districts, 
who  have  already  been  initiated  in  the  healing  arts  and  engaged  in 
the  practice,  nothing  seems  better  adapted  to  such  a  desirable  end 
than  a  friendly  correspondence  and  communication  of  sentiment, 
especially  if  united  in  a  well-regulated  society ;  the  improvements 
of  each,  either  from  study  or  observation,  being  by  this  method  dif- 
fused to  many,  and  each  member,  as  well  as  the  public,  thereby  being 
essentially  benefited — exclusive  of  the  pleasures  of  social  intercourse 
and  the  many  useful  refinements  that  might  flow  from  thence.  And 
whereas,  further  considerable  advantages  from  societies  of  this  kind, 
properly  instituted,  might  frequently  arise,  particularly  where  the  law 
or  custom  has  not  established  necessary  regulations  respecting  the 
admission  of  candidates,  the  due  rewards  for  practitioners  services, 
the  maintenance  of  the  dignity  of  the  profession,  and  the  security 
of  the  public  from  impositions  and  the  like,  it  being  in  such  cases, 
till  better  remedies  be  provided,  in  the  power  of  a  society,  including 
the  respectable  practitioners  of  a  city,  county,  or  large  district,  to  do 
much  for  the  advancement  of  their  art,  and  the  interest  of  the  people 
among  whom  they  reside. 

"  Moved  by  sentiments  of  this  kind,  and  with  the  most  upright  and 
sincere  intention  of  promoting  the  above  mentioned  and  other  good 
purposes,  we,  the  subscribers,  Practitioners  of  Physic  and  Surgery 
in  New  Jersey,  now  assembled,  Have  Agreed  to  form  ourselves, 
and  do  hereby  form  and  unite  ourselves  into  an  amicable  and 
brotherly  society,  to  be  called  and  known  by  the  name  of  The  New 
Jersey  Medical  Society.  And  for  the  better  carrying  our  said  good 
designs  into  execution,  have  voluntarily  and  unanimously  consented 
to,  ratified  and  confirmed  the  following  Articles  or  Laws  as  the 
fundamental  Constitution  of  our  Association ;  which  Constitution 
we  do  hereby  engage,  each  for  himself,  to  the  whole,  and  to  one 


38o  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

another,  as  far  as  possible,  Inevitably  to  observe  and  fully  to  sub- 
mit to,  as  obligating  on  us. 

"  istly.  That  we  will  never  enter  any  house  in  quality  of  our  pro- 
fession, nor  undertake  any  case,  either  in  physic  or  surgery,  but 
with  the  purest  intention  of  giving  the  utmost  relief  and  assistance 
that  our  art  shall  enable  us,  which  we  will  diligently  and  faithfully 
exert  for  that  purpose. 

"  2ndly.  That  we  will  at  all  times  when  desired,  be  ready  to  con- 
sult or  be  consulted  by  any  of  our  brethren,  in  any  case  submitted 
to  us.  And  that  in  all  cases  where  we  conceive  diflficulty,  and  cir- 
cumstances will  admit,  we  will  advise  and  recommend  such  con- 
sultation. 

"  3rdly.  That  we  will  not  pretend  to  or  keep  secret  any  nostrum  or 
specific  medicine  of  any  kind,  as  being  inconsistent  with  the  gener- 
ous spirit  of  the  profession,  but  will  at  all  times  be  ready  to  dis- 
close and  communicate  to  any  member  of  the  Society,  any  discovery 
or  improvement,  we  have  made  in  any  matter  respecting  the  healing 
art.  Particularly  we  each  engage  that  we  will  in  all  consultations, 
openly,  freely,  candidly  and  without  reserve,  give  to  each  other  our 
sincere  opinion  of  the  case,  and  of  the  means  we  think  most  likely 
to  effect  a  cure. 

"  4thly.  That  we  will  on  all  occasions  treat  one  another  as  be- 
comes the  medical  character,  and  that  each  of  us  will  respectively 
do  our  utmost  to  maintain  harmony  and  brotherly  affection  in  the 
Society,  to  promote  the  usefulness  of  it  both  to  the  profession  and 
the  public,  and  at  all  times  to  support  the  Institution  and  advance 
the  dignity  of  medicine. 

"  Sthly.  That  as  we  have  separated  ourselves  to  an  office  of 
benevolence  and  charity,  we  will  always  most  readily  and  cheerfully, 
when  applied  to,  assist  gratis,  by  all  means  in  our  power,  the  dis- 
tressed poor  and  indigent  in  our  respective  neighbourhoods,  who 
may  have  no  legal  maintenance  and  support  from  their  county; 
but  where  such  legal  provision  takes  place,  there  we  shall  expect 
a  reasonable  reward  from  the  particular  town  or  county  to  which 
such  poor  may  belong. 

"  6thly.  That  we  will  hold  meetings  twice  every  year,  at  such 
time  and  place  as  the  majority  shall  determine,  at  which  meetings 
all  matters  not  hereafter  excepted  or  agreed  to  be  otherwise  par- 
ticularly decided,  shall  be  determined  by  a  majority  of  votes,  every 
member  meeting  on  an  equal  footing;  and  each  of  us  for  himself 
engages  punctually  to  attend  the  said  half-yearly  meetings,  while 
he  continues  an  inhabitant  of  this  Province,  under  penalty  of  three 
pounds  proclamation  money,  except  in  case  of  sickness,  or  other 
reasonable  impediment  to  be  judged  and  allowed  of  by  the  Society. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  381 

"  7thly.  That  as  the  widely  dispersed  situation  of  the  members 
of  this  Society  will  for  the  most  part  render  a  general  meeting 
oftener  than  twice  a  year  inconvenient,  and  yet  to  answer  its  im- 
portant purposes  a  more  frequent  communication  seems  necessary. 
To  remedy  as  much  as  may  be  this  difficulty,  it  is  agreed,  that  such 
members  of  this  body,  whose  residence  in  respect  of  each  other  will 
allow,  shall  form  themselves  into  less  Associations,  and  shall  meet 
at  least  once  in  two  months,  in  order  to  converse  on  some  medical 
subject,  to  communicate  any  particular  observation,  or  otherwise 
to  advance  the  general  scheme.  And  that  each  of  these  less  Socie- 
ties shall  keep  minutes  of  their  several  proceedings,  to  be  laid  before 
the  General  Society  at  their  meetings.  And  that  every  one  of  these 
smaller  Societies  shall  have  power  to  make  such  By-Laws  for  their 
own  order  and  regulation  as  they  shall  judge  proper,  provided  they 
are  in  nowise  repugnant  to  the  General  Laws  and  Fundamentals 
of  this  Society.  It  is,  nevertheless,  hereby  intended,  that  if  any 
member  or  members  are  so  particularly  situated  that  he  or  they 
cannot  conveniently  give  attendance  at  any  such  smaller  Society,  in 
such  case  the  said  member  or  members  are  to  be  exempted  from  the 
obligations  of  this  article,  and  are  left  to  his  own  selection  in  this 
matter.  But  it  is  expected  that  such  members  will  frequent  the 
meetings  of  some  lesser  Society  as  often  as  they  reasonably  can, 
in  the  manner  of  visiting  brethren ;  and  when  anything  worthy  of 
notice  occurs,  that  they  will  speedily  and  freely  communicate  to 
one  of  the  said  Societies. 

"  8thly.  That  at  the  half-yearly  or  general  meetings,  all  such 
other  laws  and  further  regulations,  as  may  from  time  to  time  be 
judged  expedient  or  necessary,  for  promoting  the  good  purposes  of 
the  Society,  shall  be  constituted  and  established ;  and  that  the 
Society  will  then  take  into  consideration  all  such  other  matters  as 
may  occur  before  them,  either  from  the  several  inferior  Societies, 
(which  are  to  be  esteemed  as  so  many  branches  of  this  body),  or 
proposed  by  individuals  in  any  other  proper  way;  and  will  proceed 
in  such  manner  therein,  as  they  shall  deem  most  advancive  of  the 
designs  of  this  Institution." 

The  9th,  loth  and  nth  sections  provide  for  the  election  of  Presi- 
dent, Secretary,  and  Treasurer,  and  their  duties. 

The  I2th  section  provides  for  extraordinary  meetings. 

"  I3thly.  That  any  gentleman  hereafter  desiring  to  become  a 
member  of  this  Society,  shall  at  least  one  month  before  some  general 
meeting  signify  his  intention  to  the  Secretary  for  the  time  being, 
who  shall  immediately  notify  the  same  to  the  several  members; 
and  the  said  candidate  shall,  at  the  ensuing  meeting,  be  regularly 
balloted  for  by  means  of  squares  and  triangles  or  such  other  device 


382  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

as  may  be  agreed  on,  and  if  upon  examining  the  ballots,  it  shall 
appear  that  three-fourths  of  the  members  present  voted  in  the 
affirmative,  he  shall  be  declared  a  member — otherwise  not. 

"  I4thly.  That  this  Society  shall  not  be  dissolved  but  by  the 
concurrence  of  seven-eighths  of  the  whole  body. 

"  Lastly  this  Society  will  do  all  in  their  power  to  discourage  and 
discountenance  all  quacks,  mountebanks,  imposters,  or  other  igno- 
rant pretenders  to  medicine;  and  will  on  no  account  support  or 
patronize  any  but  those  who  have  been  regularly  initiated  into 
medicine,  either  at  some  University,  or  under  the  direction  of  some 
able  master  or  masters,  or  who  by  the  study  of  the  theory  and  of 
the  practice  of  the  art,  have  otherwise  qualified  themselves  to  the 
satisfaction  of  this  Society  for  the  exercise  of  the  profession. 

"  Given  under  our  hands,  at  the  city  of  New  Brunswick,  the 
twenty-third  day  of  July,  Anno  Domini,  1766. 

"  RoBT.  McKean  Thos.  Wiggins 

Chris.  Manlove  William   Adams 

John  Cochran  Bern.   Budd 

Moses  Bloomfield  Lawrence  V.  Derveer 

James  Gilliland  John   Griffith 

Wm.  Burnet  Isaac  Harris 

JoNA.  Dayton  Joseph    Sackett,    Jr." 

The  meetings  of  the  New  Jersey  Medical  Society  con- 
tinued regularly  until  1775,  when  they  were  interrupted 
by  the  war. 

In  November,  1781,  they  were  again  resumed. 

At  the  meeting  in  May,  1782,  Dr.  Beatty  read  a  report 
upon  the  "  State  of  the  Society  since  1775,"  which  was 
agreed  to,  and  was  as  follows : 

"  That  with  regret  we  observe  the  vacation  of  six  years  in  the 
Journal  of  this  Society;  and  to  prevent  any  reflections  which  might 
arise,  unfavourable  to  its  reputation  in  the  minds  of  uninformed 
or  disingenuous  persons,  it  is  thought  necessary  to  assign  here  the 
cause  and  reason  of  the  suspension  in  medical  erudition. 

"  The  war  (which  has  been  productive  of  the  happy  Revolution 
in  America)  having  claimed  the  attention  of  all  ranks  of  Freemen, 
most  of  the  members  of  this  Society  took  an  early  decided  part  in 
the  opposition  to  British  tyranny  and  oppression,  and  were  soon 
engaged  either  in  the  civil  or  military  duties  of  the  State.  Added 
to  this,  the  local  situation  of  the  war    (the  scene  of  action  being 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  383 

chiefly  in  this  and  the  adjoining  States)  rendered  an  attendance  on 
the  usual  stated  meetings,  not  only  unsafe  but  in  a  great  measure 
impracticable,  from  the  scattered  and  distant  residence  of  the  mem- 
bers. Sensible,  however,  that  improvements  which  would  do  honour 
to  the  most  elevated  understandings,  are  oftentimes  hit  upon  by 
men  of  more  confined  abilities,  and  that  in  medicine,  as  well  as  in 
every  other  circumstance  in  life,  it  is  our  duty  to  avail  ourselves  as 
much  as  possible  of  all  discoveries  tending  to  the  common  benefit; 
as  soon  as  sufficient  order  and  harmony  was  restored  to  civil  govern- 
ment and  society,  a  convening  of  the  members  was  deemed  necessary 
and  proper ;  as  well  to  re-establish  it  upon  its  former  liberal  and 
reputable  principles,  as  to  place  it  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Authority  of  the  State." 

The  meetings  were  continued  with  regularity  until 
1795,  b^t  from  that  date  until  1807  there  were  no  meet- 
ings. Dr.  Wickes  explains  the  reason  for  this.  In  June, 
1790,  a  new  medical  society  had  arisen,  "  The  Medical 
Society  of  the  Eastern  District  of  New  Jersey."  Its 
origin  was  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Micheau,  and 
its  foundation  was  vehemently  opposed  by  the  older 
organization,  because  a  majority  of  the  members  of  the 
old  society  were  drawn  from  Essex  and  the  adjacent 
counties,  which  were  included  in  the  Eastern  District  of 
New  Jersey.  At  one  of  the  meetings  of  the  New  Jersey 
Medical  Society  the  following  minute  is  recorded : 

"  It  being  represented  that  Dr.  Micheau  has  taken  an  active  part 
in  originating  and  establishing  a  Society  in  the  County  of  Essex, 
new  and  independent  of  this  corporation,  and  the  Board  deeming 
his  conduct  as  a  member  of  this  Society  very  reprehensible  —  Or- 
dered, that  the  Secretary  write  to  Dr.  Micheau  and  enclose  him  a 
copy  of  this  minute,  and  require  his  attendance  at  the  next  stated 
meeting  to  answer  in  the  premises." 

The  new  society,  though  very  successful  for  a  few 
years,  became  defunct  in  1807,  and  in  that  year  the  Medi- 
cal Society  of  New  Jersey  revived  its  meetings. 

Shortly  after  its  foundation,  in  1776,  the  New  Jersey 
Medical  Society  appointed  a  committee  to  consider  the 


384  THE    HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

question  of  the  fees  of  physicians.  This  committee  re- 
ported the  following  "  Table  of  fees  and  rates,"  which 
were  ordered  engrossed  in  the  minutes,  but  were  for 
various  reasons  not  adopted  as  imperative  on  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Society  until  the  year  1786,  when  they  were 
unanimously  voted  to  be  a  standard  for  charges.  It  is  a 
great  pity  that  some  uniform  standard  cannot  be  adopted 
and  adhered  to  at  the  present  day,  the  present  uncertainty 
as  to  what  is  right,  both  in  the  mind  of  the  physician  and 
the  patient,  is  to  be  greatly  deplored, 

"  Preamble. 

"  The  New  Jersey  Medical  Society,  considering  the  state  of  medi- 
cal practice  in  this  Government,  and  apprehending,  that  as  they  have 
separated  themselves  to  a  profession  that  not  only  deprives  them  of 
many  comforts  and  indulgences,  which  persons  in  other  offices  of 
life  enjoy,  by  being  at  the  call  of  any  one,  day  or  night,  but  also 
exposes  them  to  many  disagreeable  scenes  and  often  to  great  dangers 
from  contagious  diseases,  &c. ;  besides  the  great  expense  of  educa- 
tion, and  the  many  painful  years  to  be  employed  in  preparatory 
studies,  as  well  as  that  of  the  science  itself,  they  are  in  an  especial 
manner  entitled  to  a  just  and  equitable  reward  for  their  services, 
at  least  to  live  by  this  their  useful  profession.  And  observing  that 
their  fees  and  rewards  are  not  regularly  settled  by  law  or  custom, 
and  that  many  inconveniences  arise  from  such  defect  and  the  con- 
sequent vague  and  indeterminant  mode  of  practitioners  charging  for 
their  services,  conceiving  that  it  will  be  both  for  the  interest  of  the 
people  and  practitioners  to  establish  one  general  and  uniform  mode, 
have  unanimously  agreed  to  the  following  table,  in  which  they  have 
affixed  such  reasonable  rates  to  most  of  those  articles  that  can  be 
ascertained  in  an  art  that  admits  of  such  a  diversification  of  forms 
and  circumstances,  as  they  hope  will  be  universally  satisfactory,  and 
such  as  they  sincerely  think  are  consistent  with  equity,  and  by  no 
means  higher  than  the  usual  charges  heretofore  generally  made. 
And  this  scheme  they  have  adopted  for  the  sake  of  justice  and  order, 
to  prevent  unnecessary  dispute  and  difference  between  them  and 
their  employers,  and  as  far  as  the  usage  of  regular  and  principled 
practitioners  will  in  that  way  extend  to  obviate  the  impositions  of 
quacks  and  illiterate  medicators.  And  they  do  hereby  bind  and 
oblige  themselves  at  all  times  hereafter  to  keep  their  accounts  accord- 
ing to  the  rates  therein  settled  and  ascertained,  till  the  Legislature 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  385 

shall  interpose,  or  some  other  happier  method  be  devised  for  de- 
termining a  matter  so  interesting  both  to  the  public  and  the  profes- 


"  A  Table  of  Fees  and  Rates. 

"  For  sundry  articles  and  services  in  medicine  and  surgery,  as 
agreed  on  and  established  by  the  New  Jersey  Medical  Society,  at 
their  general  meeting  in  New  Brunswick,  July  23rd,  1766. 

"  Proclamation  Money.  ^  . 

£         s.         a. 

Visits  in  towns.  Visiting  in  towns,  whereby  the 
physician  and  surgeon  can  readily  attend  the 
patient  without  riding,  to  be  charged  for  ac- 
cording to  the  duration  of  the  ailment  and 
degree  of  attendance,  viz. :  in  slight  cases 
whereby  a  visit  or  two  may  be  wanted 0.        00. (?)  o. 

Per  Week.  In  other  cases  requiring  longer  and 
daily  care  and  attendance ;  for  each  week's 
attendance,   and   in   proportion    for   lesser   or 

more  time,  exclusive  of  medicines o.         10.        o. 

Visits  in  the  Country  un- 
der   half    a    mile    to    be 

Visits  in  the  Country  ^^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^  -^  ^^^„3^ 

viz.,  per  week,  &c o.        10.        0. 

Above  5^2  a  mile  &  T  Every  visit  above  a  mile  and 
not  more  than  J      not  exceeding  a   mile  and 

iVz  (a    half o.  I.        6. 

Every  visit  above  fifteen 
half  miles  and  not  exceed- 
ing fifteen  miles,   for  each 

mile  additional o.  i.        o. 

Every  visit  above  fifteen 
miles  and  not  exceeding 
twenty-five  miles,  for  each 
mile  above  fifteen  and  un- 
der twenty-five o.  i.        6. 

Above  25.     Every  visit  above  twenty-five  miles,  for 

each   mile   above   twenty-five o. 

Every  visit  in  the  night;   exclusive  of  other  things.  .     o. 
Consultations.     Consultation   Fees,  viz.,  Every  first 
visit  and  opinion  by  the  consulted  physician  or 

surgeon,  exclusive  of  traveling  fees o. 

Every  succeeding  visit  and  advice  by  do.  &c 0. 

25 


Above     V/z     &    not 
more  than   15 


Above  fifteen  &  not 
more  than  25 


2. 

0. 

5- 

0. 

15- 

0. 

7- 

6. 

386 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


Surgical    operations 
and  services 


'  Fees  for  surgical  operations 
and  services,  exclusive  of 
visits  and  traveling  charges, 
viz. : 


7.  6 

2.  O 

7.  6 

3-  o 


Phlebotomy   O.           I.        6. 

Extracting  a  tooth o.          i.        6. 

Cutting  an  issue o.          2.        o. 

Cupping  wfith  scarification o.          2.        o. 

Wounds.  As  first  dressings  of  all  large  or  deep  in- 
cised or  contused  v^^ounds,  including  ung'ts 
&c.,  except  in  very  extraordinary  cases,  where 
the  surgeon  shall  consult  the  Society,  who  will 
adjudge  the  proper  charge  in  such  particular 

cases o. 

Succeeding  dressings  of  do.,  each  time o. 

Opening  large  sinuses  or  ab- 

Sinuses      and      Ab-          scesses  and  first  dressing. .  o 
scesses                  Succeeding   dressing   of   do., 

each  o. 

Inflammations.  Advice  for  large  inflammations  and 
abscesses,  when  attended  twice  a  day,  per 
week,  and  proportionably  for  a  greater  or  less 

time  o.        10.        o. 

Do.  when  attended  once  a  day,  per  week,  &c. . .  o.          5.        o. 
Ulcers.     Dressing  all   malignant,  putrid  or  phage- 

dsenic  ulcers,  each  dressing 0.          2.        o. 

Dressing  small  cutaneous  or  superficial  wounds, 
small  and  healing  ulcers  and  small  abscesses, 

each  dressing o.          i.        o. 

Opening  small  abscesses  and  sinuses 0          2.        0. 

Drawing  off  the  urine  by  the  catheter,  each  time  o.          7.        6. 

Administering  a  clyster o.          3.        9. 

Trepan.     Operation  of  the  trepan 3.        00.        o. 

Dressing  each  time o.          3.        9. 

Couching,  &c.     Couching  or  extracting  the  cataract  3.        00.        o. 

Cutting  the   Iris 3.        00.        o. 

Fistula    Lachrymalis i.         10.        o. 

Each  dressing  do o.          i.        6. 

Bronchotomy    i.         10.        o. 

Extirpation  of  the  Tonsils   i.        10.        o. 

Extraction  of  the  polypus  of  the  nose i.        00.        o. 

Operation  of  the  Hare-lip i.         10.        o. 

Operation    for    the    Wry-neck i.         10.        o. 

Each  dressing  in  the  five  preceding  cases o.          i.        6. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  387 

£ 

Amputations.    Amputation  of  the  breast 3. 

Ditto  of  the  fore  and  back  arm 3. 

Ditto  of  the  leg  and  thigh 3. 

Each  dressing  for  the  first  14  days  after  the 

preceding   amputations o. 

Each  succeeding  dressing 0. 

Amputation  of  the  fingers,  or  toes,  each o. 

Each  dressing  do o. 

Suture  of  the  tendons  and  Gastroraphy,  each..  I. 

Each  dressing  do o. 

Bubonocele   Epiplocele  and  Hernia  Femoralis, 

each   3. 

Each  dressing  do o. 

Exomphalos  and  Hernia  Ventralis i. 

Each    dressing o. 

Hydrocele,   Radical   operation 3. 

Ditto,  palliative  by  puncture i. 

Castration,  each  Testicle 3. 

Each  dressing  do o. 

Phymosis  and  paraphymosis o. 

Each    dressing o. 

Paracentisis  i. 

Fistula  in  ano,  deep,  sinuous  and  of  long  stand- 
ing    3- 

Do.  small  and  recent 2. 

Each  dressing  in  such  Fistulas o. 

Empyema  I. 

Each  dressing  do o. 

Extirpation  of   small   encysted  and   small  can- 
cerous   Tumors I. 

Each  dressing  do o. 

Cutting  for  the  stone  in  the  bladder 5. 

Each  dressing  do o. 

Cutting  for  the  stone  in  the  urethra i. 

Each  dressing  do 0. 

Assistant  Surgeon's  fee  in  all  operations 
Midwifery,  viz..  Delivering  a  woman  in  a  natural 

case   I. 

In  a  preternatural  case 3. 

In  a  labourious  case,  requiring  forceps  or  extri- 
cation with  the  crotchet,  &c 3. 

Inoculation.     Inoculation  of  the  small  pox  including 
medicine  and  attendance 


s. 

d. 

00. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

5. 

0. 

2. 

6. 

15- 

0. 

2. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

2. 

6. 

00. 

0. 

5. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

2. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

5- 

0. 

7. 

6. 

2. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

3- 

0. 

00. 

0. 

2. 

0. 

ID. 

0. 

I. 

6. 

00. 

0. 

5. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

2. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

Fractures   and   Dis 
locations 


388  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

£         J.         d. 
Reduction  of  a  simple  frac- 
ture, and  depression  of  the 
nose,  with  necessary  dress- 
ing during  the  cure I.  7.        o. 

Luxation  or   fracture  of  the  lower  jaw,   with 

ditto  I. 

Luxation  of  the  neck,  with  ditto 2. 

Luxation  of  the  Humerus,  and  ditto i. 

Ditto  of  the  Cubit  and  do i. 

Simple  fracture  of  the  Clavicle,  and  do i. 

Ditto  of  the  fore  and  back  arm,  and  do i. 

Dislocation  or  fracture  of  the  wrist  bones,  with 

do    I. 

Dislocation  of  the  thigh  bone,  with  ditto 2. 

Ditto  of  the  knee,  with  do i. 

Ditto  or  fracture  of  the  Patella,  with  do o. 

Ditto  of  the  ankle,  with  do i. 

Simple  fracture  of  the  thigh  or  leg  bones,  with 

do 2. 

Simple  ditto  of  the  heel,  with  ditto i. 

Dislocation  of  the  fingers  or  toes,  with  do o. 

Compound  fractures  of  all  kinds,  one-third  more 
than  simple,  besides  the  daily  dressing,  which 
is  to  be  charged  at  the  rate  fixed  for  large 
wounds,  when  the  fracture  is  of  the  thigh,  leg 
or  arm;  but  at  the  rate  of  small  wounds 
when  of  the  fingers  or  toes,  &c. 
Other  surgical  cases  not  here  mentioned,  either 
to  be  proposed  to  the  Society  for  their  deci- 
sion, or  to  be  charged  as  nearly  to  the  tenor 
of  this  table  as  possible. 
Rates  of  extemporaneous  forms  of  medicine,  exclu- 
sive of  visiting  and  traveling  fees,  viz  : 

Bolus  Cathartic  or  emetic o.  2.        0. 

Ditto  with  musk o.  3.        O. 

Every   other   do.    alterative    for   persons    above 

years   of   age 

Decoction   with  one   ounce   Cort.    Peruv.   and  pro- 

portionably  with  greater  or  leso  quantity....     o.  7.        6. 

Other    decoctions    and    wines    made    with    foreign 

medicaments,  per  pound o. 

Do.  with  indigenous  or  native  medicines,  per  pound    o. 

Draughts,    each o. 

Electuary  Cathartic,  per  ounce o. 


00. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

ID. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

ID. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

15. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

00. 

0. 

10. 

0. 

7- 

6. 

7.  6 

3-  0 

2.  2 

7.  6 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES. 


389 


£ 

Do.  Alterative,  per  ounce o. 

Elixirs  and  Essences,  per  ounce o. 

Emulsions   o. 

Epispastic  plasters  for  the  neck,  side  or  back o. 

Do.  for  the  anus,  wrists  or  legs,  each 0. 

Each  dressing  of  the  large  blisters o. 

Each  do  of  the  lesser o. 

Ingredients  for  nitrous  decoctions,  i  pound o. 

Ingredients  foreign  for  other  decoctions,  &c.,  per  oz.  o. 

Ditto  for  Clysters o. 

Musk  Jalap 0. 

Jalaps,  per  ounce o. 

Linctus  and   Lotions,   per   ounce o. 

Lozenges,  per  ounce o. 

Mixtures   compounded   of   aqueous   and    spirituous, 

and  Saline  or  solid  substances,  per  ounce o. 

Mixtures    compounded   of   aqueous   and    spirituous, 

such  as  Tinctures,  Elixirs,  Essences,  &c.  per 

oz 0. 

Ointments,  viz.  Mere-fort,  per  ounce o. 

Do.  nit.,  per  ounce o. 

Pills,  viz.  Cathart,  one  dose 0. 

Mercur.,  per  dose 0. 

Anodyn,   per    dose 0. 

Alterative,  per  dose 0. 

Potioni  cathart.,  with  manna,  per  ounce o. 

Powders,       Cathart  (  Rhubarb,  per  dose o. 

viz,  I  All  others,  per  dose o. 

Powders  Emetic,  per  dose o. 

Do.  Alterative,  per  dose o. 

Salts  Cathartic,  per  dose o. 

Do.  with  manna,  i  ounce,  per  dose o. 

Tartar  Cream  of,  per  dose 0. 

All  medicines  charged  by  the  dose  to  persons  under 

three   years   of   age   one-fourth   less    than    to 

those  above  that  age. 

Tinctures,  per  ounce o. 

Salivation,  including  medicines 3. 

Simple  Gonorrhoea,  includ.  do 2. 

Gonorrh.    attended    with    Chancres,    or    particular 

trouble    3. 


s. 

d. 

5 

0. 

3 

9- 

I 

0. 

3 

0. 

I 

6. 

I 

0. 

0 

6. 

7 

6. 

2 

0. 

3- 

0. 

2 

6. 

I 

0. 

2. 

6. 

3 

0. 

3- 

0. 

00. 

0. 

5- 

0. 

"  All  other  prescribed  forms  not  here  specified,  to  be  submitted 
to  the  direction  of  the  Society,  and  rated  as  near  as  possible  to  the 


390  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

tenor  of  this  Table.  The  Society  reserves  to  themselves  the  right, 
at  all  times  hereafter,  of  making  all  such  alterations  in  and  addi- 
tions to  this  Table,  as  shall  appear  to  them  just  and  expedient. 

"  RoBT.  McKean,  President. 

"Resolved  and  enacted.  That  every  member  of  this  Society,  shall 
at  all  times  hereafter,  when  he  makes  out  a  bill,  charge  exactly 
agreeable  to  the  preceding  fixed  rates,  without  addition  or  diminu- 
tion, and  shall  deliver  it  in  this  form  and  no  other.  But  it  is 
nevertheless  meant  and  intended,  that  every  member  afterwards 
be  at  liberty  to  abate  what  part  of  such  bills  he  may  think  proper, 
on  account  of  poverty,  friendship,  or  other  laudable  motives,  but 
on  no  other  consideration  whatever,  under  pain  of  expulsion." 


A  Medical  Society  of  New  York. 

Wickes  "^  quotes  from  Dr.  Peter  Middleton's  "  Intro- 
ductory lecture  at  the  Opening  of  the  Medical  School  in 
King's  College,"  in  November,  1769,  his  mention  of  the 
"  institution  of  Societies,"  or  "  well-regulated  Associa- 
tions of  Gentlemen"  for  the  advancement  of  the  profes- 
sion, and  the  doctor's  remark,  "  And  permit  me  to  add 
as  one  of  the  many  instances  of  the  utility  of  these  socie- 
ties, that  whatever  merit  there  is  in  the  present  Institu- 
tion, it  was  first  planned  and  concluded  upon  in  a  Medical 
Society  now  subsisting  in  this  place;  and  May  It  Long 
Subsist." 

Dr.  Wickes  thought  this  society  to  be  identical  with 
that  in  existence  in  1749,  but  it  would  seem  that  there  is 
too  great  a  hiatus  in  our  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  a 
society  to  warrant  a  belief  that  one  had  remained  in  con- 
tinuous being  through  all  those  years.  It  is  hardly  likely 
that  it  would  remain  totally  unnoticed  in  contemporary 
medical  annals. 

In  the  Library  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine 
Wickes    found    a    manuscript   book    of    minutes,    called 

'  Loc.  cit. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  391 

"  Minutes  of  the  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  from  Nov.  14,  1794,  to  July  8,  1806."  It  begins 
as  follows :  "  A  number  of  Medical  Gentlemen  wishing 
to  associate  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  friendly  pro- 
fessional intercourse,  determined  to  meet  at  the  City  Hall, 
on  the  evening  of  Nov.  14,  1794,  when  there  appeared," 
following  which  are  the  names  of  eighteen  physicians. 
Then  "  After  some  conversation  on  the  subject  of  the 
meeting,  it  was  unanimously  resolved  that  the  present 
associates  will,  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Society  known 
by  the  name  of  the  '  Medical  Society,'  form  themselves 
into  a  Society  by  the  name  and  style  of  the  Medical  So- 
ciety of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  that  they  will  use 
the  seal  of  the  same." 

Hence  it  would  appear  that  the  Medical  Society  of  the 
State  of  New  York  is  the  immediate  and  legitimate  de- 
scendant of  the  medical  society  mentioned  by  Dr.  Middle- 
ton  in  his  address. 

In  1806  this  "  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  New 
York"  became  the  "  Medical  Society  of  the  County  of 
New  York." 

The  American  Medical  Society. 

In  the  Universal  Asylum  and  Columbian  Magazine 
for  April,  1790,  we  find  the  following  account  of  the 
American  Medical  Society : 

"  An  Account  of  the  American   Medical  Society. 

"  In  the  year  1773  a  number  of  students  who  had  assembled  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  from  different  parts  of  the  Continent,  to  hear 
the  Lectures  of  the  Medical  Professors,  thought  that  they  might 
derive  some  advantage  from  associating  themselves,  in  order  to 
discuss  various  questions  in  the  healing  art,  and  to  communicate 
to  each  other  their  observations  on  different  subjects.  Such  asso- 
ciations had  been  found  highly  beneficial  to  the  students  of  medicine 
in  Europe,  and  it  was  thought  might  be  still  more  *so  in  a  country, 


392  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

the  diseases  and  remedies  of  which  had  not  been  fully  explored. 
These  ideas  gave  rise  to  the  American  Medical  Society,  which  now 
ranks  among  its  members  many  of  the  most  respectable  medical 
characters  on  this  Continent. 

"  The  object  of  this  Society  is  the  promotion  of  medical  science 
in  general,  by  collecting  materials  for  accurate  histories  of  diseases 
as  they  appear  in  this  country,  by  recording  even  anomalous  cases, 
which  may  have  a  tendency  to  throw  light  upon  the  nature  of  a 
particular  disease,  or  upon  some  part  of  the  animal  economy,  by 
pointing  out  the  efifects  and  uses  of  new  remedies  or  of  those  which 
have  been  already  in  use,  by  explaining  the  nature  of  various  pro- 
cesses of  the  animal  economy,  and  in  short  by  recording  and  pre- 
serving whatever  may  have  a  tendency  to  give  more  accurate  ideas 
of  the  nature  of  diseases  and  of  the  means  of  removing  them. 

"  The  essays  which  have  from  time  to  time  been  read  before  the 
society,  have  amounted  to  a  considerable  number.  As  it  was  thought 
that  the  publishing  of  some  of  them  would  extend  the  benefits  of 
the  Society  beyond  its  more  immediate  members,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  select  such  essays  as  might  appear  worthy  of  public 
notice.  The  Constitution  is  now  published  in  order  to  show  the 
nature  of  the  Society,  and  in  some  measure  to  serve  as  an  intro- 
duction to  subsequent  publications. 

"  Constitution  of  the  American  Medical  Society. 

"  Art.  I.  The  Society  shall  be  called  the  American  Medical 
Society. 

"  Art.  2.  It  shall  consist  of  Senior  and  Junior  members. 

"  Art.  3.  The  officers  shall  be  a  President,  a  Vice-President,  a 
Treasurer  and  a  Secretary,  to  be  chosen  by  ballot  on  the  ist  Mon- 
day in  November  annually.  There  shall  also  be  a  Perpetual  Sec- 
retary. The  President,  Treasurer  and  Perpetual  Secretary,  shall 
be  elected  from  amongst  the  Senior  members,  the  Vice-President 
and  Annual  Secretary  from  amongst  the  Juniors. 

"  Art.  4.  The  President,  or,  in  his  absence,  the  Vice-President,  or 
oldest  Junior  member  present,  shall  regulate  the  business  of  the 
meeting,  and  where  the  voices  are  equal  he  shall  give  the  casting 
vote. 

"  The  Treasurer  shall  collect  the  contributions  and  fines  due 
from  the  members,  and  at  the  close  of  every  session  shall  render 
an  exact  account  of  his  receipts  and  disbursements.  He  shall  be  a 
resident  in  the  city. 

"  The  Perpetual  Secretary  shall  perform  the  office  of  Librarian, 
and  shall  preserve  the  seal,  and  all  communications  made  to  the 
Society.     He  shall  be  a  resident  in  the  city. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  393 

"  The  Annual  Secretary  shall  keep  exact  minutes  of  the  trans- 
actions of  the  Society,  shall  collect  ballots,  notify  the  election  or 
rejection  of  candidates,  and  introduce  them,  when  elected,  to  the 
President. 

"  Art.  5.  The  election  of  every  candidate  shall  be  by  ballot.  All 
candidates  must  have  been  proposed  at  least  one  week  before  they 
can  be  balloted  for,  and  for  their  admission  the  concurrence  of 
two  thirds  of  the  members  present  shall  be  necessary.  No  candi- 
dates for  Junior  membership  shall  be  proposed  except  from  the  first 
of  November  to  the  last  of  January  following  inclusive.  Any  mem- 
ber who  divulges  the  proposal  or  rejection  of  a  candidate,  shall  be 
expelled. 

"  Art.  6.  Candidates  for  Senior  members  must  be  persons  dis- 
tinguished for  medical  knowledge.  Those  who  have  been  two  years 
Junior  members,  and  such  as  during  that  time  graduate  in  medi- 
cine, shall  become  Senior  members  without  any  further  election. 

"  Art.  7.  Candidates  for  Junior  membership  shall  read  and 
defend  before  the  Society  a  dissertation  on  some  philosophical  sub- 
ject connected  with  medicine. 

"  Art.  8.  Every  Junior  member  on  his  admission  shall  sign  this 
Constitution  in  testimony  of  his  consent  to  be  governed  thereby. 
He  shall  receive  a  certificate  of  his  membership  signed  by  the 
President  and  sealed  with  the  seal  of  the  Society.  He  shall  pay 
into  the  hands  of  the  Treasurer,  annually,  the  sum  of  two  dollars. 

"  Art.  9.  A  majority  of  the  Junior  members  residing  in  the 
city,  together  with  the  Seniors  then  present  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  competent  to  the  transaction  of  all  business. 

"  Art.  10.  At  every  stated  meeting,  when  no  candidates  offer, 
one  or  more  medical  cases  or  dissertations  shall  be  read  by  Junior 
members  in  rotation,  the  subject  of  which  shall  be  at  the  choice 
of  the  reader,  who  shall  answer  to  the  free  and  candid  examina- 
tion of  the  members,  any  of  whom  may  join  with  him  in  support 
of  his  sentiments. 

"Art.  II.  A  correct  copy  of  every  dissertation  or  case  read 
before  the  Society  shall  be  delivered  to  the  Secretary,  within  two 
weeks  after  being  read. 

"  Art.  12.  The  Society  shall  meet  on  the  ist  Monday  in  Novem- 
ber annually,  a  notification  of  which  shall  be  made  by  the  Secretary 
in  the  public  papers.  Meetings  shall  afterwards  be  held  weekly 
until  the  second  Monday  in  February  following. 

"  Art.  13.  In  order  to  the  partial  or  total  repeal  or  amendment 
of  this  Constitution,  a  proposal  to  that  purpose  must  be  given  to 
the  President  in  writing,  be  read  by  him  to  the  Society,  and  en- 
tered upon  the  minutes  two  weeks  before  it  shall  be  taken  up  for 


394  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

consideration,    and   for   the    adoption   thereof   the   consent   of   two 
thirds  of  the  members  present  shall  be  requisite. 

"  The  present  officers  of  the  Society  are 

"  William  Shippen,  M.D.,  President. 

"William  B.  Duffield,  A.M.,  Vice-President. 

"  Henry  Stuber,  M.B.,  Treasurer  and  Perpetual  Secretary. 

"  John  Baldwin,  A.M.,  Annual  Secretary. 

"  Published  by  order  of  the  Society. 

"  Henry    Stuber,    Sec'y." 

This  account  of  the  American  Medical  Society  and  a 
number  of  the  papers  subsequently  read  before  it  are  to  be 
found  in  the  various  numbers  of  the  Universal  Asylum 
and  Columbian  Magazine  along  with  essays,  such  as 
"  Thoughts  upon  Female  Education,"  "  Pride  and  Vanity 
Characterized,"  and  "  The  Influence  of  Utility  on  the 
Moral  Sense  of  Beauty,"  and  historical  articles  on  the 
King  of  Prussia  or  the  American  Revolution,  and  poems 
*'  On  some  Snow  Melting  on  a  Lady's  Bosom"  and  "  On 
hearing  a  Lady  lament  the  short  lived  pleasure  of  youth, 
and  quick  decay  of  beauty,"  and  correspondence,  of  which 
as  samples  may  be  selected  "  A  Letter,  containing  politi- 
cal and  literary  information,  (by  a  gentleman  in  Lon- 
don)," and  "  A  Letter,  on  simplicity  in  Manners,  and  the 
importance  of  religious  opinions,  (by  a  gentleman  in 
Wilmington)." 

In  the  number  for  May,  1790,  we  find  an  article  enti- 
tled "  Two  Cases  of  Hepatitis,  read  before  the  American 
Medical  Society,  January  27th,  1787,  by  Mr.  John  Pur- 
nell  of  Maryland."  In  one  of  these  cases  an  autopsy  re- 
vealed the  correctness  of  the  diagnosis.  The  other  case 
recovered,  but,  "  about  a  year  and  a  half  after,  necessity 
and  domestic  unhappiness  drove  him  to  the  pernicious 
custom  of  drinking  rum,  which  in  a  very  short  time  ter- 
minated his  existence." 

In  the  Columbian  Magazine  for  July,   1790,  Samuel 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  395 

Knox,  of  York  County,  Pennsylvania,  published  "  A 
Case  of  Scrophula;  read  before  the  American  Medical 
Society,  January  7,  1785."  The  man  was  a  patient  in 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital. 

A  Medical  Society  composed  of  Harvard  Students. 

In  1 77 1  there  were  a  number  of  students  at  Harvard 
College  interested  in  anatomical  studies  who  formed 
themselves  into  an  "  Anatomical  Society,"  which  held 
private  meetings  for  the  discussion  of  medical  subjects 
and  were  very  proud  of  the  skeleton  which  was  in  their 
possession.  There  are  no  records  of  this  Society's  pro- 
ceedings extant,  and  the  few  facts  we  know  regarding  it 
can  hardily  justify  its  consideration  among  the  more 
serious  efforts  at  organization  by  medical  men. 

The  Boston  Medical  Society. 
On  the  14th  of  May,  1780,  a  meeting  of  physicians  was 
held  in  Boston,  and  they  constituted  themselves  the  Bos- 
ton Medical  Society.  Chief  among  them  were  Drs. 
Samuel  Danforth,  Isaac  Rand,  Jr.,  Thomas  Kast,  and 
John  Warren.  The  object  of  the  Society  was  to  regulate 
physicians'  fees.  The  war,  now  drawing  to  a  close,  had 
upset  all  business  transactions  out  of  their  former  routine, 
and  the  high  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  as  well  as  the 
depreciated  currency  then  in  circulation  required  a  change 
in  the  modes  of  payment  which  had  prevailed  before  the 
war.  Most  of  the  men  who  were  members  of  the  Boston 
Society  were  also  prominent  in  founding  the  Massachu- 
setts Medical  Society. 

The  Massachusetts  Medical  Society. 
The  Massachusetts  Medical  Society  was   founded   in 
1 78 1.     Its  history  has  been  very   fully  written  by  the 


396  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Hon.  Josiah  Bartlett  in  "  An  Historical  Sketch  of  the 
progress  of  Medical  Science  in  the  Commonwealth  of 
Massachusetts,  being  the  substance  of  a  discourse  read  at 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Medical  Society,  June  6,  1810, 
with  alterations  and  additions,  to  January  i,  1813,"^ 
and  by  Dr.  Samuel  Abbott  Green  in  "  A  Centennial  Ad- 
dress delivered  before  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society, 
at  Cambridge,  June  7,  1881.^  From  their  accounts  I 
have  drawn  in  the  subsequent  pages. 

The  Society  was  incorporated  in  1781  by  the  following 

act: 

"  Commonwealth    of   Massacuhusetts 

"  In  the  Year  of  our  Lord  1781 

"  An  Act  to  incorporate  certain  Physicians  by  the  Name  of  Tlie 

Massachusetts  Medical  Society. 

"As  health  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  happiness  of  society; 
and  as  its  preservation  or  recovery  is  closely  connected  with  the 
knowledge  of  the  animal  economy,  and  of  the  properties  and  effects 
of  medicines;  and  as  the  benefit  of  medical  institutions,  formed 
on  liberal  principles,  and  encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  law, 
is  universally  acknowledged ; 

"  Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  tlie  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  General  Court  assembled,  and  by  the  autliority  of  the  same, 
That,  Nathaniel  Walker  Appleton,  William  Baylies,  Benjamin  Cur- 
tis, Samuel  Danforth,  Aaron  Dexter,  Shirley  Ewing,  John  Frink, 
Joseph  Gardner,  Samuel  Holten,  Edward  Augustus  Holyoke,  Ebene- 
zer  Hunt,  Charles  Jarvis,  Thomas  Kast,  Giles  Crouch  Kellogg,  John 
Lynn,  James  Lloyd,  Joseph  Orme,  James  Pecker,  Oliver  Prescott, 
Charles  Pynchon,  Isaac  Rand,  jun.,  Micajah  Sawyer,  John  Sprague, 
Charles  Stockbridge,  John  Barnard  Swett,  Cotton  Tufts,  John  War- 
ren, Thomas  Welsh,  Joseph  Whipple,  William  Whiting,  be,  and 
they  hereby  are  formed  into,  and  constituted  a  body  politic  and 
corporate,  by  the  name  of  The  Massachusetts  Medical  Society; 
and  that  they  and  their  successors,  and  such  other  persons  as  shall 
be  elected  in  the  manner  hereafter  mentioned,  shall  be  and  continue 
a  body  politic  and  corporate  by  the  same  name  forever. 

*  Massachusetts  Historical  Society's  Collection,  second  series, 
vol.  i.  p.  105. 

'  Published  at  Boston  by  A.  Williams  and  Co.,  1881. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  397 

"And  be  it  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  That  the  fellows 
of  said  society  may  from  time  to  time  elect  a  president,  vice-presi- 
dent, and  secretary,  with  other  officers  as  they  shall  judge  necessary 
and  convenient ;  and  they  the  fellows  of  said  society,  shall  have 
full  power  and  authority  from  time  to  time,  to  determine  and 
establish  the  names,  number  and  duty  of  their  several  officers,  and 
the  tenure  or  estate  they  shall  respectively  have  in  their  offices ; 
and  also  to  authorize  and  empower  their  president  or  some  other 
officer  to  administer  such  oaths  to  such  officers  as  they,  the  fel- 
lows of  said  society,  shall  appoint  and  determine  for  the  well 
ordering  and  good  government  of  said  society,  provided  the  same 
be  not  repugnant  to  the  laws  of  this  commonwealth. 

"And  be  it  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid.  That  the  fellows 
of  said  society  shall  have  one  common  seal,  and  power  to  break, 
change  and  renew  the  same  at  their  pleasure. 

"And  be  it  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid.  That  they,  the 
fellows  of  said  society,  may  sue  and  be  sued  in  all  actions,  real, 
personal  or  mixed,  and  prosecute  and  defend  the  same  into  final 
judgment  and  execution,  by  the  name  of  The  Massachusetts  Medi- 
cal Society. 

"And  be  it  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  That  the  fellows 
of  said  society  may  from  time  to  time  elect  such  persons  to  be  fel- 
lows thereof,  as  they  shall  judge  proper;  and  that  they,  the  fel- 
lows of  said  society,  shall  have  power  to  suspend,  expel  or  dis- 
franchise any  fellows  of  said  society. 

"  And  be  it  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  That  the  fellows 
of  said  society  shall  have  full  power  to  make  and  enact  such  rules 
and  bye  laws  for  the  better  government  of  said  society,  as  are  not 
repugnant  to  the  laws  of  this  commonwealth ;  and  to  annex  reason- 
able fines  and  penalties  to  the  breach  of  them,  not  exceeding  the 
sum  of  twenty  pounds,  to  be  sued  for  and  recovered  by  said  society, 
and  to  their  own  use,  in  any  court  of  record  within  this  common- 
wealth proper  to  try  the  same,  and  also  to  establish  the  time  and 
manner  of  convening  the  fellows  of  said  society;  and  also  to  de- 
termine the  number  of  fellows  that  shall  be  present  to  constitute  a 
meeting  of  said  society;  and  also  that  the  number  of  said  society, 
who  are  inhabitants  of  this  commonwealth,  shall  not  at  any  one 
time  be  more  than  seventy,  nor  less  than  ten ;  and  that  their  meet- 
ings shall  be  held  in  the  town  of  Boston,  or  such  other  place  within 
this  commonwealth,  as  a  majority  of  the  members  present  in  a  legal 
meeting,  shall  judge  most  fit  and  convenient. 

"  And  whereas  it  is  clearly  of  importance,  that  a  just  discrimina- 
tion should  be  made  betzueen  such  as  are  duly  educated  and 
properly  qualified  for  the  duties  of  their  profession,  and  those  who 


398  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

may  ignorantly  and  wickedly  administer  medicine,  whereby  the 
health  and  lives  of  many  valuable  individuals  may  be  endangered, 
or  perhaps  lost  to  the  community ; 

"  Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid.  That  the 
president  and  fellows  of  said  society,  or  such  of  their  officers  or 
fellows  as  they  shall  appoint,  shall  have  full  power  and  authority, 
to  examine  all  candidates  for  the  practice  of  physic  and  surgery, 
(who  shall  offer  themselves  for  examination,  respecting  their  skill 
in  their  profession)  and  if  upon  such  examination,  the  said  candi- 
dates shall  be  found  skilled  in  their  profession,  and  fitted  for  the 
practice  of  it,  they  shall  receive  the  approbation  of  the  society,  in 
letters  testimonial  of  such  examination,  under  the  seal  of  the  said 
society,  signed  by  the  president,  or  such  other  person  or  persons 
as  shall  be  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

"And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  That  if 
the  said  president,  and  such  other  person  or  persons,  so  elected  and 
appointed  for  the  purpose  of  examining  candidates  as  aforesaid, 
shall  obstinately  refuse  to  examine  any  candidate  so  offering  him- 
self for  examination  as  aforesaid,  each  and  every  such  person  so 
elected  and  appointed  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  subject  to  a  fine  of 
One  hundred  pounds,  to  be  recovered  by  the  said  candidate,  and 
to  his  own  use,  in  any  court  within  this  commonwealth  proper  to 
try  the  same. 

"And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  That  the 
fellows  of  said  society  may,  and  shall  forever  be  deemed  capable 
in  law,  of  having,  holding  and  taking  in  fee  simple  or  any  less 
estate  by  gift,  grant  or  devise  or  otherwise,  any  land,  tenement  or 
other  estate,  real  or  personal ;  provided  the  annual  income  of  the 
whole  real  estate  that  may  be  given,  granted  or  devised  to,  or 
purchased  by  the  said  society,  shall  not  exceed  the  sum  of  two 
hundred  pounds,  and  the  annual  income  or  interest  of  said  per- 
sonal estate,  shall  not  exceed  the  sum  of  six  hundred  pounds;  all 
the  sums  mentioned  in  this  act  to  be  valued  in  silver  at  six  shillings 
and  eight  pence  per  ounce;  and  the  annual  income  or  interest  of  the 
said  real  and  personal  estate,  together  with  the  fines  and  penalties 
paid  to  said  society,  or  recovered  by  them,  shall  be  appropriated  to 
such  purposes  as  are  consistent  with  the  end  and  design  of  the 
institution  of  said  society,  and  as  the  fellows  thereof  shall  determine. 

"  And  be  it  further  enacted.  That  the  first  meeting  of  the  said 
Medical  Society  shall  be  held  in  some  convenient  place  in  the  town 
of  Boston ;  and  that  Edward  Augustus  Holyoke,  Esq.,  be,  and  he 
hereby  is,  authorised  and  directed  to  fix  the  time  for  holding  the 
said  meeting,  and  to  notify  the  same  to  the  fellows  of  said  Medical 
Society. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  399 

"  In  the  House  of  Representatives,  October  30,   1781 
"  This    bill    having    had    three    several    readings,    passed    to    be 
enacted. 

"  Nathaniel  Gorham,  Speaker. 

"  In   Senate,   November   i,   1781. 
"This  bill   having  had  two   several   readings,   passed  to  be  en- 
acted. 

"  Samuel  Adams,  President. 
"A  true  copy  Approved  John  Hancock. 

"  Attest 

"John  Avery,  jun..  Secretary." 

In  The  Boston  Gazette  and  the  Country  Journal"  for 
November  17,  1781,  Dr.  Holyoke  published  a  notice 
calling  a  meeting  of  the  Society,  as  directed  by  its  act 
of  incorporation.  This  meeting  was  held  in  the  County 
Court-House,  in  Boston,  on  November  28,  1781,  and 
there  were  present  at  it  nineteen  of  the  thirty-one  cor- 
porators. Dr.  Holyoke  was  elected  president,  Dr.  Isaac 
Rand,  Jr.,  secretary,  and  Dr.  Thomas  Welsh,  treasurer, 
all  of  the  appointments  being  merely  pro  tern. 

At  the  third  meeting  of  the  Society,  held  on  June  5, 
1782,  a  permanent  organization  was  effected  and  the  fol- 
lowing officers  elected : 

President,  Edward  Augustus  Holyoke,  Esq. 
Vice-President,  Dr.  James  Pecker. 

Dr.  Samuel  Danforth, 

Dr.  Joseph  Gardner, 

Hon.   Samuel   Holten,  Esq., 

James  Lloyd,  Esq., 

Dr.  Isaac  Rand,  Jun., 

Hon.  Cotton  Tufts. 
Corresponding  Secretary,  Dr.  John  Barnard  Swett. 
Recording  Secretary,  Dr.  Nathaniel  Walker  Appleton. 
Treasurer,  Dr.  Thomas  Welsh. 
Vice-Treasurer  and  Librarian,  Dr.  Aaron  Dc.xter. 


Counsellors,    - 


400  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

I  Dr.  Samuel  Danforth, 
Dr.  Charles  Jarvis, 
Dr.  Joseph  Orme, 
Hon.  Cotton  Tufts,  Esq., 
Dr.  John  Warren. 

The  Society  adopted  as  its  seal  "  A  Figure  of  ^Escu- 
lapius  in  his  proper  habit  pointing  to  a  wounded  Hart 
nipping  the  Herb  proper  for  his  Cure,"  with  the  motto 
"  natura  duce." 

The  presidents  of  the  Society  were  as  follows : 

1.  Edward  A.  Holyoke.  5.  Samuel  Danforth,  1795. 

2.  Wm.  Kneeland,  1784.  6.  Isaac  Rand,  1798. 

3.  Edward  A.  Holyoke,  1786.  7.  John  Warren,  1804. 

4.  Cotton  Tufts,  1787. 

The  vice-presidents  during  the  same  period  were, — 


James  Pecker,  1782.  6.  Isaac  Rand,  1797. 

Cotton  Tufts,  1785.  7.  Ebenezer  Hunt,  1798. 

Isaac  Rand,  Sr.,  1787.  8.  John  Warren,  1800. 

Samuel  Danforth,  1790.  9.  Joshua  Fisher,  1804. 
Samuel  Holten,  1795. 


In  1785  the  Society  appointed  corresponding  and  ad- 
vising committees  for  the  different  counties  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  which  medical  associations  were  formed  to 
promote  professional  intercourse  and  progress. 

In  1789  the  Society  prescribed  the  studies  necessary  to 
a  candidate  for  their  license  to  practise.  They  ordained 
that  every  candidate  must  have  a  competent  knowledge 
of  Greek,  Latin,  the  principles  of  geometry,  and  experi- 
mental philosophy,  and  that  the  period  of  instruction 
should  in  no  case  be  less  than  three  years,  with  attendance 
on  the  practice  of  a  reputable  physician.  A  subsequent 
by-law  adopted  as  a  regulation  that  after  the  4th  of  June, 
181 3,  no  candidate  should  be  admitted  to  an  examination 
unless  he  had  previously  studied  with,  and  attended  the 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  401 

practice  of  a  fellow  or  honorary  member  of  the  Society. 
The  Society  made  triennially  publications  of  authors  to 
be  studied,  by  which  the  most  modern  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  medical  science  were  circulated.  The  censors 
met  for  the  examination  of  candidates  for  licenses  once 
every  four  months.  The  first  license  was  granted  in 
1782. 

In  1790  the  Society  issued  a  number  of  "  Medical 
Papers."  For  want  of  funds  the  second  volume  did  not 
make  its  appearance  until  1806.  The  third  appeared  in 
1808.  These  three  numbers  completed  the  first  volume 
of  the  series  of  "  Medical  Communications  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Medical  Society." 

In  March,  1803,  the  Society  had  an  act  passed  by  the 
Legislature  which  allowed  them  to  admit  any  number  of 
persons  to  fellowship,  instead  of  limiting  the  member- 
ship to  seventy,  as  had  been  done  by  the  act  of  incorpora- 
tion. 

In  1808  Drs.  James  Jackson  and  John  Collins  Warren 
published  a  Pharmacopoeia  with  the  official  sanction  of  the 
Society,  its  object  being  to  introduce  a  uniform  nomen- 
clature and  to  bring  about  greater  uniformity  in  physi- 
cians' prescriptions. 

In  1810  Dr.  James  Thacher  published  "The  Ameri- 
can New  Dispensary,"  also  with  the  official  sanction  of 
the  Society,  having  as  its  basis  the  Pharmacopoeia  of 
Jackson  and  Warren. 

In  the  year  1831  the  Society  began  the  publication  of 
"  The  Library  of  Practical  Medicine,"  consisting  of  re- 
prints of  famous  foreign  works  on  medicine,  as  well  as 
of  works  by  its  members.  This  useful  series  numbered 
twenty-five  volumes  before  the  Society  stopped  its  publi- 
cation in  1868. 

"  The  Publications  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  So- 

26 


402  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

ciety"  began  in  i860,  and  were  continued  until  1871. 
They  consist  of  reports  of  cases  and  papers  read  at  the 
Society's  meetings,  which  are  comprised  in  three  pub- 
Hshed  vohmies.  After  1871  papers  of  this  character  were 
printed  in  the  Society's  "  Communications." 

The   Medical   Society  of  New   Haven   County  and  the 
Connecticut  State  Medical  Society. 

As  early  as  the  year  1763  we  find  the  physicians  of 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  attempting  to  organize  themselves, 
and  petitioning  the  General  Court  of  the  colony  of  Con- 
necticut for  an  act  of  incorporation  giving  the  physi- 
cians of  the  colony  a  right  to  meet  in  a  body  and  adopt 
measures  to  regulate  the  practice  of  medicine  in  the 
colony. 

The  memorial  is  so  interesting  that  I  have  reprinted  it : 

"  To  THE  Honourable  General  Assembly  of  the  Colony  of 
Connecticut  to  be  Held  at  New  Haven  the  second  Thursday  of 
October  next — The  Memorial  of  us  the  Subscribers  Physicians  in 
said  Colony  Humbly  sheweth  That  whereas  life  is  the  most  De- 
sirable of  all  Sublunary  Enjoyments  and  Health  so  invaluable  a 
Blessing  that  without  it  in  some  Degree  Life  is  little  Worth  and 
that  the  Promoting  Medical  Knowledge  among  Physicians  is  the 
Necessary  and  direct  means  to  Restore  health  and  even  Preserve 
Life  and  is  of  great  Importance  as  it  will  Render  The  Practice  of 
Physic  more  safe  and  Serviceable  to  the  Patient  and  at  the  same 
time  yeald  more  Satisfaction  and  Honour  To  the  Profession — 

"  And  whereas  more  than  one  hundred  years  have  already  passed 
away  since  the  Planting  this  Colony  and  Nothing  has  been  Publickly 
done  to  Distinguish  between  the  Honest  and  Ingenuous  Physician 
and  the  Quack  or  Emperical  Pretender  by  Reason  of  which  Im- 
posture and  Imposition  has  been  and  is  still  but  too  Commonly 
Practised  among  us  to  the  great  Injury  of  the  People  as  well  as 
the  Disparagement  of  the  Profession — We  your  Honours  Memo- 
rialists would  therefore  humbly  pray  your  Honours  to  Take  the 
Matter  under  your  wise  Consideration  and  Order  &  Enact  that  the 
Physicians  in  each  County  in  this  Colony  for  their  Mutual  Edifica- 
tion and  Instruction  have  Liberty  and  power  To  meet  Together 
in  their  Respective  Counties  at  such  time  and  Place  as  they  shall 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  403 

Appoint  once  in  three  months  and  at  the  First  of  such  their  Meet- 
ings choose  a  Committee  of  three  or  More  approved  Physiciaijs  to 
Continue  for  the  space  of  one  year  and  Annually  to  be  Chosen 
such  Committee  for  the  time  Being  to  have  full  power  to  Examine 
and  if  found  duly  Qualified  Approve  such  Candidates  for  the 
Practice  of  Physic  who  shall  offer  Themselves  for  Examination 
and  if  any  Person  offering  himself  Shall  be  Adjudged  not  Quali- 
fied and  so  not  approved  by  such  Committee  that  such  Person  may 
apply  himself  to  any  County  and  be  there  Examined  And  Deter- 
mined by  such  meeting  and  Approved  of  if  they  think  Fit  by  Proper 
Certificate  and  that  for  the  future  no  Person  or  Persons  that  are 
not  Already  deemed  Physicians  who  shall  pretend  to  Practise 
Physic  without  such  Approbation  first  had  And  Obtained  Appear- 
ing by  Proper  Certificate  be  Allowed  to  Bring  or  Maintain  any  Ac- 
tion against  any  Person  or  Persons  To  Recover  any  Debt  Demand 
or  other  thing  for  any  service  he  or  they  shall  Pretend  to  have 
done  or  Presumed  as  a  Physician — Or  otherwise  Enact  and  order 
some  proper  regulation  for  the  Practice  of  Physic  as  in  your  Wis- 
dom shall  be  thought  most  Proper  And  as  in  Duty  bound  Shall 
ever  Pray 

"  Theophilus  Rogers  Joshua    Perkins    Physician 

Joshua  Downer  Elisha  Tracy 

Cyril  Carpenter  Moses   Morris 

Php.  Turner  John    Barker 

Obadiah  Kinsbury  Elisha  Lord 

Ebenezer   Robinson 
"  Dated  at  Norwich  The  27th  day  of  Sepf  17^3 
"  In  the  Lower  House 

"  The  Question  was  put  whether  any  thing  should  be  granted 
on  this  Memorial — 

"  Resolved  in  the  Negative 

"  Test      Abrm  Davenport  Clerk." 

In  1766  an  attempt  to  effect  the  same  object  was  made 
by  the  physicians  of  Litchfield  County.  This  likewise 
was  abortive. 

On  April  12,  1774,  a  notice  was  inserted  in  the  Con- 
necticut Courant  calling  on  the  physicians  of  New  Lon- 
don County  to  meet  and  form  an  organization  for  the 
purpose  of  procuring  legislation  on  medical  matters.  A 
similar  notice  appeared  in  the  same  paper  in  .April  for 
the  Hartford  County  physicians. 


404  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

In  the  Courant  for  September  14,  1779,  the  following 
was  published : 

"  Resolution  passed  at  a  meeting  of  Phys  from  Mass.,  York,  & 
Conn.  States. 

"  The  end  of  society  is  the  common  welfare  &  the  good  of  the 
people  associated.  The  end  of  this  meeting  is  to  form  a  Medical 
Society,  to  unite  its  members  in  a  cordial  affection,  to  add  life  and 
vigour  to  the  healing  art  —  to  suppress  quackarism  [sic}  &  encour- 
age medical  knowledge  &  virtue  .  .  .  One  of  the  greatest  evils 
mankind  suffer  is  disease  &  2ndly  the  miserable  ignorant  &  in- 
judicious application  of  medicine.  Imagine  a  person  groaning 
under  the  pangs  of  some  disease  or  the  anguish  of  some  wound. 
An  ignorant  pretender  is  called  in  for  assistance  by  whose  appli- 
cation the  patient  instantly  expires  or  a  foundation  laid  that  the 
patient  spins  out  a  miserable  existence.  .  .  . 

"  To  form  rules  quadrate  with  the  rights  of  mankind  in  general 
&  this  Soc.  in  particular  will  be  the  design  of  this  meeting  &  to 
adopt  such  rules  as  the  society  agree  to  &c  &c  —  where  upon  we 
resolve  ist  That  this  meeting  shall  be  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Medical  Society  of  Sharon. 

"  2nd  That  we  will  choose  a  president  &  clerk  &c  (accord'g  to 
the  usual  forms  of  organization) 

"  Dated  at  Sharon  July  5,  1779 

"  Oliver  Tuller,  Clk 

"N.  B. 

"Any  Gentlemen  of  the  Faculty  that  are  disposed  to  join  this 
Med.  Soc.  will  meet  with  a  kind  reception  on  the  last  Tuesday 
of  Sept  next  or  on  any  of  our  future  meetings." 

All  the  above-mentioned  organizations  proved  very- 
ephemeral  in  character,  but  in  1 784  was  formed  the  Medi- 
cal Society  of  New  Haven  County.  This  Society  pos- 
sesses the  proud  distinction  of  publishing  the  first  volume 
of  transactions  ever  issued  by  a  medical  society  in  the 
United  States.  This  volume  was  published  under  the 
title  "  Cases  and  Observations  by  the  Medical  Society  of 
New  Haven  County  in  the  State  of  Connecticut,  Insti- 
tuted in  the  Year  1784 — Published  in  1788." 

The  preface  states  that 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  405 

"  a  number  of  Physicians  in  the  city  and  county  of  New  Haven 
stimulated  by  the  importance  of  the  object,  and  the  laudable  ex- 
ample of  the  faculty  in  the  various  nations  of  Europe,  and  in  some 
parts  of  America,  formed  a  society  in  the  year  1784,  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  themselves  in  Medical  Knowledge." 

The  volume  contains  one  cut,  of  a  deformed  foetus, 
and  twenty-six  papers  with  the  following  titles : 

Article  I.  Case  of  singultus  from  an  adhesion  of  the  Liver  to 
the  Diaphragm,  proving  fatal.  Communicated  by  Dr.  Samuel  Nes- 
bitt,  F.M.S. 

Article  II.  Case  of  Puerperal  Fever  successfully  treated.  Com- 
municated by  Dr.  Elnathan  Beach,  F.M.S. 

Article  III.  Two  cases  of  difficult  Deglutition  from  extraneous 
bodies  lodged  in  the  Gula.     By  Dr.  Abraham  Tomlinson,  F.M.S. 

Article  IV.  Case  of  a  Fractured  cranium  successfully  treated. 
By  John  Spalding,  Surgeon,  F.M.S. 

Article  V.  Case  of  a  Gangrene  of  the  Scrotum.  By  Dr.  Leverett 
Hubbard,  F.M.S. 

Article  VI.  Case  of  Lock'd  Jaw  successfully  treated  by  Elec- 
tricity.    By  Dr.  Eneas  Munson,  F.M.S. 

Article  VII.  Case  of  an  Hsematemesis  successfully  treated.  By 
Dr.  Samuel  Nesbitt,  F.M.S. 

Article  VIII.  Case  of  an  Enteritis  —  Communication.  By  Dr. 
Ebenezer  Beardsly,  F.M.S. 

Article  IX.  Case  of  a  deformed  Foetus,  with  a  cut.  Communi- 
cated by  Dr.  Leverett  Hubbard,  F.M.S. 

Article  X.  Case  of  the  fatal  effects  of  the  corrosive  sublimate  of 
Mercury.     By  Dr.  Levi  Ives,  F.M.S. 

Article  XL  Case  of  the  fatal  effects  of  drinking  cold  water  when 
heated.     By  Dr.  Samuel  Nesbitt,  F.M.S. 

Article  XII.  Case  of  an  Asthenia  from  an  extraordinary  cause. 
By  Dr.  Samuel  Nesbitt,  F.M.S. 

Article  XIII.  Case  of  an  Hydrocephalus  Internus.  By  Dr. 
Ebenezer  Beardsly,  F.M.S. 

Article  XIV.  Case  of  a  Scirrhous  Tumour  in  the  Pylorus.  By 
Dr.  Ebenezer  Beardsly,  F.M.S. 

Article  XV.  Case  of  a  singular  wound  in  the  Eye.  By  John 
Spalding,  Surgeon,  F.M.S. 

Article  XVI.  Case  of  a  Peripneumony.  By  Dr.  Ebenezer 
Beardsly,  F.M.S. 

Article  XVII.  Case  of  an  amputation  of  the  leg  in  consequence 
of  a  divided  artery.     By  John  Spalding,  Surgeon,  F.M.S. 


4o6  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

Article  XVIII.  A  letter  from  Dr.  Humphrey  Gale,  F.M.S.,  on 
the  bite  of  a  mad  dog.  Communicated  by  Dr.  Leverett  Hubbard, 
F.M.S. 

Article  XIX.  Case  showing  the  good  effects  of  the  antiphlogistic 
regimen  in  the  eruptive  variolous  fever.  By  Dr.  Samuel  Nesbitt, 
F.M.S. 

Article  XX.  History  of  a  dysentery  occasioned  by  stagnant  air. 
By  Dr.  Ebenezer  Beardsly,  F.M.S. 

Article  XXI.  Case  of  a  division  of  the  tendo  Achillis.  By  Dr. 
Samuel  Nesbitt,  F.M.S. 

Article  XXII.  Case  of  a  wound  in  the  Trachea  Arteria  and 
JEsophagus.     By  John  Spalding,  Surgeon,  F.M.S. 

Article  XXIII.  Case  of  an  enlarged  Gall-bladder.  By  Dr. 
Ebenezer  Beardsly,  F.M.S. 

Article  XXIV.  Case  of  Dysentery  Symptoms  from  worms.  By 
Dr.  Samuel  Nesbitt,  F.M.S. 

Article  XXV.  Case  of  a  scirrhus  in  the  pylorus  of  an  infant. 
By  Dr.  Hezekiah  Beardsly,  F.M.S. 

Article  XXVI.  Case  of  Calculi  in  the  Lungs.  By  Dr.  Eneas 
Munson,  F.M.S. 

In  1 79 1  the  Windham  County  Medical  Society,  in  the 
State  of  Connecticut,  came  into  existence,  and  in  1792 
many  more  medical  societies.  In  1792  the  Connecticut 
State  Medical  Society  was  organized  and  received  its 
charter.  This  charter,  as  will  be  seen,  gave  the  Society 
very  complete  control  of  the  practice  of  medicine  in  the 
State : 

"  Charter  of  the  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  Connecticut. 
(Enacted  in  May  1792) 

"  Whereas  well  regulated  medical  societies  have  been  found  to 
contribute  to  the  diffusion  of  true  science,  and  particularly  the 
knowledge  of  the  healing  art;    Therefore, 

"  I.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Governor  and  Council  and  House  of 
Representatives  in  General  Court  assembled,  that  there  be  a  medical 
society  founded  within  this  state,  to  consist  of  the  following,  viz. 
James  Potter,  Leveret  Hubbard,  Charles  Phelps,  Joshua  Porter, 
Amos  Mead,  Charles  Mather,  Josiah  Hart,  Eliakim  Fish,  Samuel 
Flagg,  Eneas  Munson,  Jared  Potter,  John  Lester,  David  Rogers, 
Philip    Turner,    Elisha    Perkins,    Isaac    Knight,    Daniel    Sheldon, 


I)K.    ^INKAS    Ml'NSON. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  407 

Phineas  Miller,  James  Schoville,  Samuel  Woodward,  Ichabod  War- 
ner, Jeremiah  West,  David  Sutton,  Elihu  Tudor,  Timothy  Rogers, 
Joseph  Baker,  John  R.  Watrous,  Seth  Bird,  Minor  Grant,  Simon 
Wolcott,  John  Osborn,  Asa  Hamilton,  Theophilus  Rogers,  Lemuel 
Hopkins,  Philemon  Tracy,  Mason  F.  Cogswell,  Thaddeus  Betts, 
Thomas  Coit,  Joshua  Downer,  Elnathan  Beach,  John  Turner,  John 
Spalding,  Levi  Ives,  James  Clarke,  Albigence  Waldo,  John  Clark, 
and  Elisha  Lord,  with  such  other  physicians  and  surgeons,  as  shall 
hereafter  be  approved  of,  and  admitted  from  time  to  time,  as  is 
herein  after  provided,  that  is  to  say,  the  physicians  and  surgeons, 
living  in  the  respective  counties,  shall  have  liberty  to  meet  together 
on  the  fourth  Tuesday  of  September  next,  and  at  such  place  within 
their  respective  counties,  as  shall  be  appointed  by  Lemuel  Hopkins, 
Eneas  Munson,  Simon  Wolcott,  Albigence  Waldo,  James  Potter, 
Seth  Bird,  Jeremiah  West,  and  John  Osborn ;  and  by  them  notified, 
by  advertising  in  some  public  Gazette  in  the  counties  in  which 
they  respectively  dwell,  and  when  so  met,  they  shall  have  authority 
by  their  major  vote  in  such  respective  meetings,  to  determine  the 
qualifications,  and  admission  of  their  own  members,  and  the  per- 
sons who  shall  thus  be  admitted,  shall  have  authority  to  make  a 
choice  of  a  chairman  and  clerk,  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  such 
meetings. 

"  2.  Be  it  further  enacted.  That  such  county  meetings  formed  as 
aforesaid,  and  all  future  county  meetings,  which  the  members  so 
approved  and  as  aforesaid,  with  such  others  r.s  shall  hereafter  be 
duly  approved  and  admitted  pursuant  to  this  act,  shall  annually 
hold  on  the  fourth  Tuesday  in  September,  which  they  are  hereby 
authorized  to  do,  and  at  such  place  as  they  shall  appoint  the  said 
future  meetings,  having  organized  themselves  with  a  chairman  and 
clerk,  as  aforesaid,  are  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  choose  by 
ballot,  from  amongst  themselves,  five  persons  from  each  county, 
except  for  the  county  of  Middlesex  and  Tolland,  and  three  for  each 
of  those  counties,  to  compose  a  convention  of  said  society ;  which 
members  so  to  be  chosen  for  first  said  convention,  shall  meet  at  the 
court  house  in  Middletown,  on  the  second  Tuesday  of  October  next 
at  ten  of  the  clock  in  the  forenoon ;  and  for  the  future  annual  con- 
ventions at  such  time  and  place  as  they  shall  appoint,  and  being 
so  met,  they  are  hereby  authorized,  by  ballot  to  choose  a  president, 
vice-president,  treasurer,  and  secretary,  and  such  other  officers  as 
they  may  think  proper,  and  the  convention  so  formed,  shall  be 
known  by  the  name  of  The  President  and  Fellows  of  the  Con- 
necticut Medical  Society;  and  shall  hold  their  offices  for  the  term 
of  one  year,  and  shall  have  full  power  to  make  by-laws  to  promote 
the   ends  of  said   society,   provided   they  be   not   repugnant   to   the 


4o8  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

laws  of  this  state  or  of  the  United  States,  and  may  expel  members 
from  said  society,  for  any  misdemeanours  as  relative  to  said 
society;  to  appoint  examining  committees  in  the  respective  coun- 
ties, who  shall  examine  such  candidates  as  may  offer  themselves  for 
that  purpose,  and  license  such  as  shall  be  found  qualified  for  the 
practice  of  physic  or  surgery,  and  to  receive  them  on  their  desire 
as  members  of  said  society  in  their  respective  counties ;  to  confer 
honorary  degrees  on  such  of  the  faculty  as  they  may  from  time  to 
time  find  of  distinguished  merit,  to  purchase  and  hold  to,  and  for, 
the  benefit  of  said  society,  property,  both  real  and  personal,  to  an 
amount  not  exceeding  sixteen  thousand,  six  hundred  and  sixty- 
seven  dollars,  and  to  manage,  improve  and  convey  the  same  for  the 
common  good  and  interest  of  said  society,  and  may  have  a  com- 
mon seal,  and  the  same  alter  or  renew  at  their  pleasure;  and  the 
said  society,  in  their  corporate  capacity  may  sue  and  be  sued  as 
other  societies  and  bodies  corporate  may  by  law,  as  relative  to  the 
contracts,  rights  and  interests,  of  said  society.  Twenty  members 
to  be  present  to  be  a  quorum  to  transact  the  business  of  said 
society. 

"  3.  Be  it  further  enacted,  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  several 
members  of  the  society,  according  to  their  ability,  to  communicate 
useful  information  to  each  other  in  their  respective  county  meet- 
ings, and  such  meetings  shall,  from  time  to  time,  transmit  to  the 
convention,  such  curious  cases  and  observations,  as  may  come  to 
their  knowledge;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  convention  to 
cause  to  be  published,  such  extraordinary  cases,  and  such  observa- 
tions on  the  state  of  the  air,  and  on  epidemical  and  other  disorders 
as  they  may  think  proper,  and  the  said  county  meetings  and  con- 
ventions shall  have  power  to  adjourn  from  time  to  time,  as  they 
may  think  necessary,  to  promote  the  designs  of  their  institution. 

"4.  Be  it  further  enacted,  That  if  this  act,  or  anything  herein 
contained  shall  be  found  inadequate  or  inconvenient,  it  may  by  the 
general  assembly  be  altered,  amended  or  repealed." 

In  1800  the  charter  was  amended  by  the  addition  of  the 
following  clause : 

"  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Governor  and  Council  and  House  of 
Representatives  in  General  Court  assembled,  That  no  person  in 
future  shall  commence  or  enter  upon  the  practice  of  physic  or  sur- 
gery in  this  state,  who  has  not  been  duly  licensed,  by  some  medical 
society,  or  college  of  physicians  or  shall  take  benefit  of  laws  for  the 
recovery  of  any  debts  or  fee's  for  such  practice." 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  409 

The  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. 

The  history  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadel- 
phia has  been  most  thoroughly  and  entertainingly  written 
by  Dr.  W.  S.  W.  Ruschenberger  in  his  "  Account  of  the 
Institution  and  Progress  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of 
Philadelphia  during  a  Hundred  Years,  from  January, 
1787."  Upon  it  I  have  relied  in  my  account  of  its  history 
for  practically  all  my  information.  I  have  also  made 
free  use  of  the  "  Early  History  of  Medicine  in  Phila- 
delphia," by  Dr.  George  W.  Norris.  Both  of  these  books 
possess  far  more  than  a  local  interest  in  their  account  of 
the  times  when  Philadelphia  was  the  centre  of  medicine 
in  America,  and  when  the  medical  students  who  gathered 
there  received  instruction  from  as  gifted  and  learned  a 
group  of  teachers  as  it  has  probably  been  the  fortune  of 
any  one  city  to  boast  of  at  one  time. 

Even  as  early  as  the  year  1767  Dr.  John  Morgan, 
according  to  Norris,  was  endeavoring  to  found  a  College 
of  Physicians.  Thomas  Penn  wrote  to  Richard  Peters 
on  February  25,  1767, — 

"  I  have  had  a  letter  from  Dr.  Morgan,  and  proposals  for  erect- 
ing a  College  of  Physicians.  I  think  it  very  early  for  such  an  es- 
tablishment, and  wish  the  faculty  would  not  press  for  such  a  thing. 
I  shall  confer  with  Dr.  Fothergill  upon  it." 

The  Proprietaries,  finally,  whether  acting  upon  the  ad- 
vice of  Dr.  Fothergill  or  not  is  not  known,  refused  to 
grant  a  charter,  so  that  the  scheme  fell  through.  Dr. 
Ruschenl)erger  quotes  passages  from  letters  written  in 
the  year  1783  by  Dr.  Francis  Rigby  Brodbelt,  of  Spanish 
Town,  Jamaica,  and  Dr.  Samuel  Powel  Griffitts.  in  which 
mention  is  made  of  the  projected  founding  of  such  a 
college. 

The  first  stated  meeting  of  the  College  of  Physicians 
of  which  the  minutes  are  preserved  was  held  on  Tuesday, 


4IO  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

the  2d  of  January,  1787.  There  had  been,  however, 
meetings  for  organization  earlier  than  this;  a  constitu- 
tion had  been  adopted  and  officers  elected.  At  this  meet- 
ing the  constitution  was  signed  by  the  members  who 
were  present,  being  nine  senior  and  four  junior  Fellows. 
Drs.  Benjamin  Rush,  Benjamin  Duffield,  and  Samuel  P. 
Griffitts  were  appointed  a  committee  to  prepare  a  form 
of  diploma  or  certificate  of  membership  and  to  devise 
a  seal  for  the  College.  Drs.  William  Shippen,  Adam 
Kuhn,  and  William  W.  Smith  were  appointed  a  commit- 
tee to  draw  up  a  set  of  by-laws.  The  constitution  was 
printed  in  The  Pennsylvania  Packet  and  Daily  Adver- 
tiser for  February  i,  1787. 

The  following  notice  was  also  printed : 

"All  communications  that  are  included  in  the  objects  of  the 
College,  specified  in  the  preamble  of  the  constitution,  may  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  Secretary  (post  paid,  when  they  are  sent  by  that 
conveyance),  or  to  any  fellow  of  the  College. 

"  It  is  to  be  hoped  the  friends  of  medical  science  in  every  part 
of  the  United  States  will  concur  in  promoting  by  useful  com- 
munications the  important  designs  of  this  institution. 

"  Published  by  order  of  the  College. 

"  James  Hutchinson,   Secretary. 

"  The  present  officers  of  the  College  are : 

President  Treasurer 

John  Redman  Gerardus  Clarkson 

Vice-President  Secretary 

John  Jones  James  Hutchinson 
Censors 
William  Shippen,  Jr.  John  Morgan 

Benjamin  Rush  Adam  Kuhn" 

The  first  constitution  read  as  follows : 

"  Constitution  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia 
January  2nd,   1787. 

"  The  Physicians  of  Philadelphia,  influenced  by  a  conviction  of 
many  advantages  that  have  arisen  in  every  country  from  Literary 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  411 

institutions,  have  associated  themselves  under  the  name  and  title 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. 

"The  objects  of  this  College  are,  to  advance  the  Science  of 
Medicine,  and  thereby  to  lessen  Human  Misery,  by  investigating 
the  diseases  and  remedies  which  are  peculiar  to  our  Country,  by 
observing  the  effects  of  different  seasons,  climates,  and  situations 
upon  the  Human  body,  by  recording  the  changes  that  are  produced 
in  diseases  by  the  progress  of  Agriculture,  Arts,  Population,  and 
Manners,  by  searching  for  Medicines  in  our  Woods,  Waters,  and  the 
bowels  of  the  Earth,  by  enlarging  our  avenues  to  knowledge ;  from 
the  discoveries  and  publications  of  foreign  Countries ;  by  appoint- 
ing stated  times  for  Literary  intercourse  and  communications,  and 
by  cultivating  order  and  uniformity  in  the  practice  of  Physick. 

"  For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  these  objects,  the  following  Rules 
have  been  adopted : 

"  1st.  The  College  shall  consist  of  twelve  Senior  Fellows  and 
of  an  indefinite  number  of  junior  Fellows  and  Associates. 

"2nd.  The  Senior  and  junior  Fellows  shall  reside  in  the  City, 
or  District  of  Southwark,  or  Liberties  of  Philadelphia. 

"3rd.  The  Associates  shall  consist  of  such  persons  of  merit  in 
the  profession  of  Medicine  who '  do  not  live  within  the  limits 
described  for  Fellows,  without  any  regard  to  Diversity  of  Nation 
or  Religion. 

"4th.  The  junior  Fellows  shall  consist  of  such  Practitioners  of 
Physic  as  are  of  good  moral  character  and  decent  deportment,  and 
who  are  not  under  twenty-four  years  of  age. 

"  5th.  The  Senior  Fellows  shall  be  chosen  from  among  the 
Juniors,  by  the  Seniors  only,  within  one  month  after  a  vacancy  is 
declared.  The  Junior  Fellows  and  Associates  shall  be  chosen  by 
the  joint  votes  of  all  the  Fellows.  Three-fourths  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  Senior  Fellows  shall  concur  in  the  admission  of  Seniors, 
and  three-fourths  of  the  Fellows  shall  concur  in  the  admission  of 
Juniors  and  Associates. 

"  6th.  All  Laws,  Regulations,  and  Appointments  to  offices  shall 
be  made  by  a  Majority  of  the  joint  votes  of  the  Fellows. 

"  7th.  The  officers  of  the  College  shall  consist  of  a  President, 
Vice-President,  four  Censors,  a  Treasurer,  and  Secretary,  who 
shall  be  chosen  annually  from  among  the  Senior  Fellows  on  the 
first  Tuesday  in  July. 

"  8th.  The  Stated  Meetings  of  the  College  shall  be  on  the  first 
Tuesday  in  every  month.  Besides  these  meetings  the  President,  or 
in  his  absence  or  indisposition  the  Vice-President,  shall  have  power 
to  call  extraordinary  meetings  whenever  important  or  unexpected 
business  shall  require,  of  which  he  shall  be  the  judge. 


412  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

"  It  shall  likewise  be  in  the  power  of  any  six  Fellows  of  the 
College  who  concur  in  their  desires  of  a  meeting  to  authorize  the 
President  or,  in  his  absence,  the  Vice-President  to  call  it. 

"  9th.  The  business  of  the  Censors  shall  be  to  inspect  the  Records 
and  examine  the  accounts  and  expenditures  of  the  College  and 
report  thereon ;  and  all  communications  made  to  the  Society,  after 
being  read  at  one  of  their  stated  meetings,  shall  be  referred  to  the 
Censors,  and  such  other  members  of  the  College  as  shall  be  nomi- 
nated for  the  purpose  to  examine  and  report  thereon  to  the  College, 
who  shall  determine  by  a  vote  taken  by  Ballot,  on  the  propriety  of 
publishing  them  in  their  transactions. 

"  loth.  The  business  of  the  Secretary  shall  be  to  keep  minutes  of 
the  meetings  and  transactions  of  the  Society,  and  to  record  them 
in  a  Book  provided  for  that  purpose.  Likewise  to  receive  and  pre- 
serve all  books  and  papers  belonging,  and  letters  addressed  to  the 
College. 

"  nth.  The  business  of  the  Treasurer  shall  be  to  receive  all  the 
monies  of  the  College,  and  to  pay  them  to  the  order  of  the  President 
or  Vice-President  only,  which  order  shall  be  the  Voucher  of  his 
expenditures. 

"  I2th.  Every  member  of  the  College  shall  have  a  certificate  of 
his  election,  with  the  seal  of  the  College  affixed  thereto,  signed  by 
the  President  and  Vice-President,  and  countersigned  by  the  Cen- 
sors and  Secretary.  The  style  of  the  certificates  and  all  addresses 
from  the  College,  shall  be  as  follows:  The  President  (or  the  Vice- 
President),  and  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. 

"  13th.  No  associate  who  comes  to  reside  within  the  limits  men- 
tioned in  the  Second  Rule  shall  be  admitted  to  a  Fellowship  in  the 
College  without  being  elected  in  the  manner  prescribed  for  the 
admission  of  Junior  Fellows.  No  new  member  shall  be  chosen 
who  has  not  been  proposed  at  a  previous  stated  meeting. 

"  14th.  No  Law  or  Regulation  shall  be  adopted  that  has  not  been 
proposed  at  a  previous  stated  meeting,  nor  shall  any  part  of  the 
Constitution  be  altered  without  being  proposed  for  consideration 
for  three  months.  The  President,  or  the  Vice-President  when  he 
takes  the  chair,  shall  have  no  vote,  except  on  questions  where  there 
is  an  equal  division  of  voices. 

"  Two-fifths  of  the  Fellows  shall  be  a  quorum  for  all  Business, 
except  the  election  of  members,  the  expenditure  of  money,  the 
making  of  Laws,  or  the  altering  of  the  Constitution ;  in  the  three 
last  cases,  a  majority  of  the  Fellows  shall  be  a  quorum. 

"  15th.  Every  Fellow  upon  his  admission  shall  subscribe  to  the 
above  Rules,  as  a  Testimony  of  his  consent  to  be  bound  by  them. 
He  shall  at  the  same  time  pay  into  the  hands  of  the  Treasurer  the 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES. 


413 


sum  of  eight  dollars ;  towards  establishing  a  fund  for  the  use 
of  the  College;  he  shall  likewise  pay  two  dollars  annually  for  the 
same  purpose. 

"  Senior  Fellows. 
John  Morgan,  Gerardus   Clarkson, 

John  Redman,  Samuel  Duffield, 

John  Jones,  Thomas   Parke, 

William  Shippen,  Jr.,  James  Hutchinson, 

Adam  Kuhn,  George  Glentworth, 

Benj.  Rush,  Abra.  Chovet. 

"  Junior  Fellows. 

Andrew  Ross,  Nathan  Dorsey, 

Wm.  W.  Smith,  B.  Duffield, 

James  Hall,  John  Carson, 

William  Clarkson,  John  Foulke, 

William  Currie,  Robt.    Harris, 

Benjn.  Say,  John  R.  B.  Rodgers, 

Samuel  P.  Griffitts,  Caspar   Wistar,   Jun'r. 

J.  Morris,  Jas.    Cunningham." 

The  constitution  was  amended  to  what  is  practically 
its  present  form  on  November  6,  1787. 

The  first  meeting-place  of  the  College  was  in  buildings 
occupied  by  the  University  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania 
at  Fourth  and  Arch  Streets,  The  meetings  were  held 
on  the  first  Tuesday  of  each  month,  at  four  p.m.  from 
October  to  March  and  at  five  p.m.  from  April  to  Septem- 
ber. Subsequently  the  members  leased  a  room  in  the 
hall  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  from  Decem- 
ber 10,  1 79 1,  till  June  10,  1794,  for  about  twenty-three 
dollars  a  year,  and  having  furnished  it  at  a  cost  of 
seventy-two  dollars,  held  their  meeting  there.  This  lease 
was  subsequently  renewed  from  time  to  time,  and  the 
College  remained  as  tenants  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society  until  July  i,  1845,  ^  period  of  more  than 
fifty-three  years.  In  1845  they  moved  into  a  hall  in  the 
Mercantile  Library  Company's  building  at  the  soutlieast 


414 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 


corner  of  Fifth  and  Library  Streets.  In  1854  the  Col- 
lege began  to  hold  its  meetings  in  the  small  building 
known  as  the  Picture  House,  from  its  containing  the 
picture  Benjamin  West  had  painted,  on  the  grounds  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.  This  continued  to  be  the 
home  of  the  College  until  March,  1863,  when  they  moved 
into  their  own  buildings  at  the  northeast  corner  of 
Thirteenth  and  Locust  Streets.  In  1852  the  night  for 
meeting  was  changed  to  the  first  Wednesday  of  the  month 
in  compliance  with  the  request  of  twenty-nine  members 
of  the  College,  who  were  also  members  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences,  which  always  met  on  the  first  Tues- 
day. We  find  that  at  an  early  date  the  College  mani- 
fested its  benevolent  interest  in  the  welfare  of  others,  for 
at  the  meeting  on  April  3,  1787,  committees  were  ap- 
pointed to  submit  plans  for  establishing  hot  and  cold 
baths  and  a  botanical  garden  for  the  city.  On  November 
7,  1787,  the  College  adopted  a  petition  to  the  Legisla- 
ture, prepared  by  a  committee  consisting  of  Drs.  Jones, 
Rush,  and  Grifiitts,  "  setting  forth  the  pernicious  effects 
of  spirituous  liquors  upon  the  human  body,  and  praying 
that  such  a  law  may  be  passed,  as  shall  tend  to  diminish 
their  consumption." 

On  the  3d  of  June,  1788,  a  committee  was  appointed, 
consisting  of  Drs.  Redman,  Jones,  Kuhn,  Shippen,  Rush, 
Griffitts,  Wistar,  and  Hutchinson,  "  to  form  a  pharma- 
copoeia for  the  use  of  the  College."  This  was  the  first 
attempt  to  issue  an  official  Pharmacopoeia  in  the  United 
States. 

On  April  7,  1789,  a  circular  letter  was  issued  request- 
ing the  co-operation  of  those  interested  in  the  matter 
towards  the  formation  of  a  Pharmacopoeia  of  the  United 
States.  The  committee  had  evidently  determined  to  en- 
large the  scope  of  their  work.    This  letter  read  as  follows : 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  415 

"  Sir  The  Physicians  of  this  city,  from  a  desire  of  extending 
medical  knowledge,  and  of  promoting  harmony  and  uniformity  in 
the  practice  of  physic,  have  associated  themselves  under  the  name 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. 

"  With  a  view  to  render  their  institution  more  extensively  useful, 
they  have  resolved  to  address  the  most  respectable  medical  char- 
acters in  the  United  States,  intimating  their  designs,  and  requesting 
such  information  as  may  be  most  conducive  to  carry  them  into 
effect. 

"  One  of  the  Objects  of  this  College  has  been  that  of  forming 
a  Pharmacopoeia  adopted  to  the  present  state  of  medicine  in 
America;  for  which  purpose  a  committee  of  their  members  has 
been  some  time  since  appointed,  who  have  made  some  progress  in 
their  work.  When  we  consider  the  great  number  of  publications 
of  this  kind  which  Europe  has  been,  and  is  annually  producing, 
we  think  no  doubt  can  arise  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  some 
standard  amongst  ourselves  to  prevent  that  uncertainty  and  irregu- 
larity which  in  our  present  situation  must  infallibly  attend  on  the 
composition  of  the  Apothecary  and  the  prescription  of  the  Physician. 
And  as  we  wish  this  Work  may  be  accommodated  to  the  practice 
of  medicine  throughout  the  United  States,  and  that  every  useful 
addition  may  be  made  to  former  publications,  we  request  that  you 
will  favour  us  with  your  sentiments  on  the  subject,  and  particularly 
inform  us  what  Native  American  Remedies  have  been  discovered 
amongst  you.  It  will  be  necessary  to  give  the  botanical  and  ver- 
nacular names  of  such  substances,  and  to  ascertain  their  virtue 
with  the  most  scrupulous  Precision.  As  we  are  desirous  of  pub- 
lishing a  volume  of  Transactions  as  often  as  materials  are  afforded, 
we  shall  be  much  obliged  to  you  for  whatever  Communications  you 
may  favor  us  with  on  medical  subjects. 

"  Although  we  particularly  address  those  Physicians  who  are  best 
known  to  us,  yet  as  there  must  be  many  others,  men  of  learning 
and  rank  in  the  Profession,  the  knowledge  of  whom  has  not  yet 
reached  this  place  from  the  want  of  that  intercourse  which  would 
be  so  desirable  and  useful  to  the  Advancement  of  Medical  Science, 
we  wish  that  you  would  communicate  to  them  our  intentions  and 
that  they  would  excuse  this  unavoidable  omission,  and  furnish  us 
with  their  assistance  as  though  they  were  severally  addressed. 

"  Letters  and  communications  are  to  be  addressed  to  the  Presi- 
dent or  Secretary  of  the  College. 

"  Signed  by  order  of  the  College 

"John  Redman,  President. 

"  Samuel  Powel  Griffitts,  Secretary. 

"  Philadelphia." 


4i6  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

One  hundred  of  these  letters  were  sent  out,  and  many 
individual  responses  approving  of  the  scheme  v^ere  re- 
ceived. At  the  meeting  of  the  College  on  August  3,  1790, 
a  letter  was  read  from  the  Medical  Society  of  New 
Haven  offering  its  heartiest  co-operation.  It  was  signed 
by  a  committee  composed  of  Drs.  Leverett  Hubbard, 
Eneas  Munson,  Ebenezer  Beardsly,  Elnathan  Beach,  and 
Samuel  Nesbett. 

There  were  many  practical  obstacles  to  the  immediate 
carrying  out  of  the  scheme,  but  the  matter  was  kept  con- 
stantly in  mind.  On  June  6,  1797,  Drs.  Griffitts,  Barton, 
and  James  were  appointed  to  prepare  a  list  of  "  medical 
substances  and  pharmaceutical  processes"  to  be  described 
in  the  Pharmacopoeia.  iVU  this  agitation  on  the  subject 
started  many  others  in  the  same  line  of  work,  and  in  1808 
Drs.  James  Thacher  and  John  Collins  Warren  published, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society, 
the  first  official  Pharmacopoeia  issued  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  received  with  much  cordiality,  and  met  with  the 
heartiest  commendation  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of 
Philadelphia,  although  it  might  have  been  expected  to 
arouse  some  feeling  of  disappointment  at  the  forestalling 
of  their  own  project.^ ^ 

"*  The  subsequent  history  of  the  events  finally  leading  to  the  pub- 
lication of  the  "  United  States  Pharmacopoeia"  is  of  much  interest. 
I  have  condensed  it  from  Dr.  Rushenberger's  book.  On  November 
21,  1818,  a  circular  letter  was  sent  to  the  College  of  Physicians  by 
Drs.  David  Hosack,  John  R.  B.  Rodgers,  Samuel  L.  Mitchell,  John 
Stearns,  John  Watts,  Jr.,  T.  Romeyn  Beck,  Lyman  Spalding, 
Wright  Post,  and  Alexander  H.  Stevens,  of  New  York,  proposing 
a  plan  to  be  laid  before  the  College  at  its  next  meeting.  The  plan 
outlined  was  that  a  Pharmacopoeia  should  be  composed  under  the 
auspices  of  the  incorporated  medical  societies  and  schools  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  States  or  Territories  where  no  such  cor- 
porate bodies  existed,  by  voluntary  associations  of  the  physicians 
practising  in  them.     That  conventions  should  be  held  in  the  four 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  417 

On  November  11,  1788,  the  College  petitioned  the 
Legislature  for  permission  to  bring  in  a  bill  for  its  in- 
corporation, which  was  granted,  and  the  bill  presented 

grand  divisions  of  the  United  States,  and  these  district  conventions 
should  each  elect  delegates  to  a  general  convention  to  be  held  in 
Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  on  the  ist  of  January,  1820. 
That  the  general  convention  should  form  a  national  Pharmacopoeia 
based  on  the  previous  district  convention  Pharmacopceias.  This 
plan  owed  its  inception  to  Dr.  Lyman  Spalding.  It  was  approved 
by  the  College,  and  Drs.  Parke,  Griffitts,  Hewson,  Jones,  Stewart, 
Atlee,  and  Parrish  were  appointed  as  its  delegates  to  the  district 
convention  of  the  Middle  States,  which  met  in  the  chamber  of  the 
College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia  on  June  i,  1819.  There  were 
delegates  in  attendance  from  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Phila- 
delphia, the  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  the  Western  District  of  New  York, 
the  New  Jersey  Medical  Society,  the  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Faculty 
of  Maryland,  the  Medical  Society  of  Delaware,  and  the  Medical  So- 
ciety of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

This  convention  adjourned  on  June  4,  after  considering  two 
Pharmacopoeias  in  outline  and  a  code  of  ethics,  and  electing  as 
delegates  to  the  National  Convention  Drs.  Samuel  L.  Mitchell, 
Alexander  H.  Stevens,  Lyman  Spalding,  and  John  Watts,  Jr.,  of 
New  York ;  Drs.  Thomas  Parke  and  Thomas  T.  Hewson,  of  Phila- 
delphia ;  Dr.  Allen  McLane,  of  Wilmington,  Delaware ;  Drs. 
Elisha  De  Butts  and  Samuel  Baker,  of  Baltimore;  and  Dr.  Henry 
Hunt,  of  Washington,  District  of  Columbia. 

The  convention  of  the  eastern  district  of  the  United  States  had 
been  held  at  Boston  on  June  i,  1819,  and  had  included  delegates 
from  the  Medical  Society  of  Massachusetts,  the  Medical  Society  of 
Vermont,  Brown  University  in  Rhode  Island,  the  Medical  Society 
of  Rhode  Island,  and  the  Medical  Society  of  Connecticut.  Drs. 
Ives,  of  Connecticut,  and  Bigelow,  of  Massachusetts,  were  elected 
its  delegates  to  the  National  Convention. 

The  National  Convention  met  in  Washington  on  January  i,  1820, 
and  they  compiled  a  Codex  Medicamentarius,  or  Book  of  Rules 
and  Directions,  for  selecting  and  compounding  the  articles  em- 
ployed in  practice. 

This  convention  decided  that  meetings  of  such  a  body  .should  be 
held  every  ten  years  for  the  purpose  of  revision  of  the  Pharmaco- 
poeia as  necessity  arose. 

27 


4i8  THE   HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

in  February,  1789.  The  date  of  incorporation  was  March 
26,   1789. 

On  June  3,  1788,  Drs.  Jones,  Wistar,  and  Griffitts  were 
appointed  a  committee  to  formulate  a  plan  for  a  library 
for  the  College.  The  Fellows  were  requested  to  contrib- 
ute books.  In  December,  1788,  Dr.  John  Morgan  gave 
the  College  twenty-four  volumes,  and  in  the  following 
month  he  added  some  more.  On  July  7,  1789,  Drs.  Jones, 
Parke,  and  Wistar  were  appointed  to  prepare  a  list  of 
books  to  be  purchased  for  the  College  Library,  at  a  cost 
not  exceeding  fifty  pounds. 

In  October,  1789,  Dr.  William  Shippen  presented  the 
College  with  the  works  of  Dr.  John  Morgan  in  eight 
volumes,  and  Dr.  John  Jones  presented  some  books.  In 
the  ensuing  November  the  president  was  authorized  to 
expend  fifty  pounds  for  books  for  the  Library.  In  1790 
a  number  of  volumes  were  imported  from  England,  and 
in  1793  Dr.  Rush  presented  the  College  with  the  works 
of  Sydenham.  In  1794  the  unbound  pamphlets  belong- 
ing to  the  College  were  ordered  bound  into  volumes.  In 
1795  the  Library  received  a  number  of  valuable  dona- 
tions, especially  from  Dr.  Parke.^^ 

"  In  1825  the  Kappa  Lambda  Society  deposited  their  library  with 
that  of  the  College.  On  June  7,  1836,  the  Library  contained  only 
two  hundred  and  ninety-one  volumes, — namely,  thirty-one  folios, 
sixty-seven  quartos,  and  one  hundred  and  ninety-three  octavos.  In 
1844  the  medical  library  of  Dr.  Otto  was  purchased..  It  was  placed 
in  a  room  over  the  office  of  Dr.  Hodge  at  Ninth  and  Walnut  Streets. 
On  June  3,  1845,  the  Library  Committee  reported  that  one  case  of 
books  stood  on  the  landing  of  the  stairway  leading  to  "  our  room ;" 
that  the  Otto  collection  was  at  Dr.  Hodge's  office,  and  that  the 
library  was  very  little  used.  On  December  i,  1846,  the  Philadel- 
phia Medical  Society  deposited  its  library  with  that  of  the  College, 
but  on  December  7,  1859,  the  Society  took  its  books  away  again. 
In  1858  the  College  received  twelve  hundred  and  sixty-five  volumes 
from  Dr.  Thomas  F.  Betton.     In  1864  Dr.  Samuel  Lewis  presented 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  419 

During  the  spring  of  1789  influenza  was  epidemic  in 
the  city,  and  the  president  called  a  special  meeting  of  the 
College  on  April  16  to  consult  the  members  as  to  the 
propriety  of  warning  the  authorities  against  a  general 
illumination  of  the  city,  which  had  been  proposed  in 
honor  of  Washington,  who  was  to  pass  through  on  his 
way  to  be  inaugurated.  It  was  feared  the  sick  might  be 
seriously  affected  if  a  general  celebration  were  instituted. 
At  this  meeting  Drs.  Redman,  Jones,  and  Rush  were  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  wait  upon  the  Supreme  Executive 
Council  the  next  morning  and  "  inform  them  that  al- 
though the  College  of  Physicians  do  sincerely  join  their 
fellow-citizens  in  their  joy  on  the  occasion  yet  they  can- 
not be  so  inattentive  to  the  health  of  many  under  their 
care,  as  to  decline  informing  the  Council  that  a  general 
illumination  of  the  city,  might  be  productive  of  fatal  con- 
sequences." Dr.  Ruschenberger  says  that  though  there 
was  "  a  handsome  display  of  fireworks  in  the  evening," 
no  general  illumination  is  mentioned. 

the  College  with  upward  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  volumes,  a 
collection  which  has  ever  since  been  known  as  the  Lewis  Library, 
and  kept  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  books  in  the  College  Library. 

In  1866  Dr.  George  B.  Wood  agreed  to  give  the  College  five 
hundred  dollars  annually  in  order  that  the  Library  might  be  kept 
open  daily  for  the  use  of  the  Fellows.  In  1869  the  College  received 
four  hundred  and  forty-five  dollars  and  ninety  cents  from  the 
Philadelphia  Medical  Society  at  the  time  when  the  latter  dissolved. 

In  1880  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell  presented  one  thousand  dollars  to 
establish  a  Journal  Fund,  to  which  he  has  subsequently  added  very 
munificently. 

Among  the  generous  donors  to  the  Library  of  recent  years  may  be 
mentioned  Drs.  Alfred  Stille  and  I.  Minis  Hays,  and  Mrs.  G.  F. 
Weightman,  Mrs.  Helen  C.  Jenks,  and  Mr.  William  Weightman. 

On  April  i,  1884,  the  Samuel  D.  Gross  Library  of  the  Academy 
of  Surgery  was  deposited  with  the  College.  It  is  to  become  the 
property  of  the  College  should  the  Academy  of  Surgery  ever  cease 
to  exist. 


420  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

In  November,  1789,  a  committee  appointed  by  the 
Legislature  to  amend  the  quarantine  laws  of  the  State 
applied  to  the  College  for  its  advice  on  the  subject.  Drs. 
Redman,  Jones,  Shippen,  Rush,  and  Hutchinson  were 
appointed  to  draft  an  answer. 

On  May  7,  1793,  the  first  steps  were  taken  towards 
publishing  the  Transactions  of  the  College.  A  commit- 
tee, consisting  of  Drs.  Ross,  Wistar,  and  Griffitts,  was 
appointed  to  attend  to  the  printing,  another,  consisting  of 
Drs.  Leib,  Currie,  and  Gibbons,  to  see  about  the  publi- 
cation, and  Drs.  Rush,  Shippen,  and  Griffitts  were  as- 
signed the  duty  of  composing  a  suitable  preface.  On 
September  3,  1793,  the  Secretary  reported  that  he  had 
received  a  number  of  copies  of  the  first  part  of  volume 
one  of  the  Transactions.  A  copy  was  directed  to  be  sent 
to  the  author  of  each  paper  in  the  volume  and  to  the 
medical  societies  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Then 
the  publication  of  formal  transactions  halted  for  many 
years.  In  1798  a  pamphlet  was  published  entitled  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia 
relative  to  the  Prevention  of  the  Introduction  and  Spread- 
ing of  Contagious  Diseases."  In  1800  another  pamphlet 
was  published  under  the  title  "  Facts  and  Observations 
relative  to  the  Nature  of  the  Pestilential  Fever  which  pre- 
vailed in  this  City  in  1793,  1797,  and  1798.  By  the 
College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia." 

The  Philadelphia  Medical  Society. 

In  1789  there  was  instituted  another  Philadelphia  medi- 
cal society,  which  received  articles  of  incorporation  in 
1792,  and  was  rechartered  in  1827.  It  had  a  flourishing 
existence  for  half  a  century,  when  it  amalgamated  with 
the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  421 

The  Delaware  State  Medical  Society. 

The  Delaware  State  Medical  Society  was  incorporated 
February  3,  1789,  by  the  Legislature  of  the  State,  under 
the  title  of  "  The  President  and  Fellows  of  the  Medical 
Society  of  Delaware." 

The  corporators  were  John  McKinly,  Nicholas  Way, 
Jonas  Preston,  Ebenezer  Smith,  George  Munro,  Thomas 
McDonough,  Joshua  Clayton,  Ezekiel  Needham,  James 
Tilton,  William  MoUeston,  Edward  Miller,  James  Sykes, 
Nathaniel  Luff,  Robert  Cook,  Matthew  Wilson,  Joseph 
Hall,  John  Marsh,  John  Polk,  John  Stephens  Hill,  Julius 
Augustus  Jackson,  William  McMechen,  Henry  Latimer, 
James  McCallmont,  Joseph  Capelle,  Archibald  Alexander, 
Henry  Peterson,  and  Levarius  Hooker  Lee. 

The  first  meeting  was  held  at  Dover  on  May  12,  1789, 
and  its  first  officers  were.  President,  James  Tilton ;  Vice- 
President,  Jonas  Preston,  M.B. ;  Secretary,  Edward  Mil- 
ler, M.B. ;  Treasurer,  James  Sykes ;  Censors,  Nicholas 
Way,  M.D. ;  Matthew  Wilson,  M.D. ;  Joshua  Clayton, 
Nathaniel  Luff.  The  Society  has  maintained  a  continu- 
ous existence  to  the  present  time. 

New  Hampshire  Medical  Society. 

In  1 79 1  the  Legislature  of  New  Hampshire  granted  a 
charter  to  a  body  of  physicians  incorporating  them  under 
the  above  title.     Their  charter  read  as  follows: 

"  State  of  New  Hampshire. 

"  In  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
ninety-one. 

"  (L.  S.)  An  Act,  to  incorporate  certain  Physicians  by  the  name 
of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society. 

"As  health  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  happiness  of  society; 
and  as  its  preservation  or  recovery  is  closely  connected  with  the 
knowledge  of  the  animal  economy,  and  of  the  properties  and  effects 
of  Medicine;  and  as  the  benefit  of  Medical  Institutions,  formed  on 


422  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

liberal  principles,  and  encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  Law,  is 
universally  acknowledged ; 

"  Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Represen- 
tatives in  General  Court  convened,  That  Josiah  Bartlett,  Joshua 
Brackett,  Ammi  Ruhamah  Cutter,  Hall  Jackson,  Nathaniel  Peabody, 
William  Page,  Moses  Carr,  James  Brackett,  John  Rogers,  John 
Jackson,  Ezra  Green,  Ebenezer  Rockwood,  William  Cogswell,  Ken- 
dall Osgood,  George  Sparhawk,  William  Parker,  Samuel  Tenney, 
Benjamin  Page,  and  Isaac  Thorn,  be,  and  they  hereby  are,  formed 
into,  constituted  and  made  a  Body  Politic  and  Corporate,  by  the 
name  of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society,  and  that  they  and 
their  successors,  and  such  other  persons  as  shall  be  elected  in  the 
manner  hereafter  mentioned,  shall  be  and  continue  a  Body  Politic 
and  Corporate  by  the  same  name  forever. 

"2.  And  be  it  further  enacted.  That  the  Fellows  of  said  Society 
may,  from  time  to  time,  elect  a  President,  Vice-President,  and 
Secretary,  with  such  other  Officers  as  they  shall  judge  necessary 
and  convenient.  And  the  Fellows  of  said  Society  shall  have  full 
power  and  authority,  from  time  to  time,  to  determine  and  establish 
the  names,  number,  and  duty  of  the  several  Officers,  and  the  tenure 
and  estate  they  have  in  their  offices,  respectively;  and  also  to 
authorize  and  empower  their  President,  or  some  other  officer,  to 
administer  such  oaths  to  such  officers  as  they,  the  Fellows  of  said 
Society,  shall  appoint  and  determine,  for  the  well  ordering  and 
good  government  of  the  said  Society — provided  the  same  be  not 
repugnant  to  the  Laws  of  this  State. 

"3.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  the  Fellows  of  said  Society 
shall  have  one  common  Seal,  and  power  to  break,  change,  and 
renew,  the  same  at  their  pleasure. 

"  4.  And  be  it  further  enacted.  That  the  Fellows  of  said  Society 
may  sue  and  be  sued,  in  all  actions,  real,  personal,  and  mixed,  and 
prosecute  and  defend  the  same  unto  final  judgement  and  execution, 
by  the  name  of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society. 

"  5.  And  be  it  further  enacted.  That  the  Fellows  of  said  Society 
may,  from  time  to  time,  elect  such  persons  to  be  Fellows  thereof, 
as  they  may  judge  proper;  and  that  they,  the  Fellows  of  said 
Society,  shall  have  power  to  suspend,  expel,  or  disenfranchise,  any 
Fellows  of  said  Society. 

"6.  And  be  it  further  enacted.  That  the  Fellows  of  said  Society 
shall  have  full  power  and  authority  to  make  and  enact  such  Rules 
and  By-Laws,  for  the  better  government  of  said  Society,  as  are 
not  repugnant  to  the  Laws  of  this  State;  and  to  annex  reasonable 
fines  and  penalties  to  the  breach  of  them,  not  exceeding  the  sum 
of  Twenty  Pounds,  to  be  sued  for  and  recovered  by  said  Society, 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES. 


423 


and  to  their  own  use,  in  any  Court  of  Record  in  this  State  proper 
to  try  the  same ;  and  also  to  establish  the  time  and  manner  of  con- 
vening the  members  of  said  Society ;  and  also  to  determine  the 
number  of  Fellows  that  shall  be  present  to  constitute  a  meeting  of 
said  Society;  and  also  that  the  members  of  said  Society,  who  are 
inhabitants  of  this  State,  shall  not  at  any  time  be  more  than  seventy, 
nor  less  than  fifteen ;  and  that  their  meetings  shall  be  held  in  Con- 
cord, or  such  other  place  within  this  State  as  a  majority  of  the 
members  present,  in  a  legal  meeting,  shall  judge  most  fit  and  con- 
venient. 

"And  whereas  it  is  clearly  of  importance,  that  a  just  discrimina- 
tion should  be  made  between  such  as  are  duly  educated  and  properly 
qualified  for  the  duties  of  their  profession,  and  those  who  may 
ignorantly  and  wickedly  administer  medicine,  whereby  the  health 
and  lives  of  many  valuable  individuals  may  be  endangered,  or  per- 
haps lost  to  the  community. 

"  7.  Be  it  therefore  further  enacted.  That  the  President  and  the 
Fellows  of  said  Society,  or  such  of  their  officers  or  Fellows  as  they 
may  appoint,  shall  have  full  power  and  authority  to  examine  all 
candidates  for  the  practice  of  Physic  and  Surgery,  who  shall  offer 
themselves  for  examination  respecting  their  skill  in  their  profession, 
and  if  upon  examination,  the  said  candidates  shall  be  found  skilled 
in  their  profession,  and  fitted  for  the  practice  of  it,  they  shall  receive 
the  approbation  of  the  Society,  in  letters  testimonial  of  such  exami- 
nation, under  the  Seal  of  said  Society,  signed  by  the  President,  or 
such  other  person  or  persons  as  shall  be  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

"  8.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  if  the  said  President  and 
such  other  person,  or  persons  so  selected  and  appointed  for  the 
purpose  of  examining  candidates  as  aforesaid,  shall  obstinately  and 
unreasonably  refuse  to  examine  any  candidate  so  offering  himself 
for  examination  as  aforesaid,  such  and  every  such  person  so  elected 
and  appointed  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  subject  to  a  fine  not  exceeding 
One  Hundred  Pounds,  nor  less  than  Twenty  Pounds,  to  be  recovered 
by  the  said  candidate,  and  to  his  own  use,  in  any  Court  within  this 
State  proper  to  try  the  same. 

"  9.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
said  Medical  Society,  from  time  to  time,  to  describe  and  point  out 
such  a  medical  instruction  or  education,  as  they  shall  judge  requi- 
site for  candidates  for  the  practice  of  Physic  and  Surgery,  pre- 
vious to  their  examination  before  them,  or  their  officers  appointed 
for  that  purpose,  respecting  their  skill  in  their  profession,  and  shall 
cause  the  same  to  be  published  in  two  newspapers  printed  in  different 
counties  in  this  State.  And  every  candidate,  examined  and  approved 
by   the    President   and    Fellows   of   said    Society,   or   such    of   their 


424  THE   HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

officers  or  Fellows  as  they  shall  appoint,  shall  be  held  to  pay  such 
reasonable  fees  of  office  as  shall  be  established  by  said  Society  for 
the  examination  of  candidates,  and  letters  testimonial  in  favour  of 
such  as  shall  be  approbated.  And  the  Treasurer  of  said  Society  for 
the  time  being,  shall  have  full  power  and  authority  to  sue  for  and 
recover  the  same,  in  any  Court  proper  to  try  the  same. 

"  10.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  the  Fellows  of  said  Society 
may  and  shall  forever  be  deemed  capable  in  law,  of  holding  and 
taking,  in  fee-simple,  or  any  less  estate  by  gift,  grant,  devise,  or 
otherwise,  any  lands,  tenements,  or  other  estate,  real  or  personal, 
provided  that  the  annual  income  of  the  whole  real  estate  that  may  be 
given,  granted,  or  devised  to,  or  purchased  by,  the  said  Society, 
shall  not  exceed  the  sum  of  Two  Hundred  Pounds,  and  the  annual 
income  or  interest  of  said  personal  estate  shall  not  exceed  the  sum 
of  One  Thousand  Pounds ;  And  the  annual  income  of  the  said  real 
estate  and  personal  estate,  together  with  the  fines  and  penalties  paid 
to  said  Society,  or  recovered  by  them,  shall  be  appropriated  to  such 
purposes  as  are  consistent  with  the  end  and  design  of  the  institution 
of  said  Society,  and  as  the  Fellows  thereof  shall  determine. 

"  II.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  His  Excellency  Josiah 
Bartlett,  Esquire,  be,  and  he  hereby  is,  authorized  and  directed  to 
fix  the  time  and  place  of  holding  the  first  meeting  of  said  Medical 
Society,  and  to  notify  the  Fellows  thereof  accordingly. 

"  State  of  New  Hampshire. 
"In  the  House  of  Representatives,  Feb.   ii,  1791. 
"  The  foregoing  bill  having  been  read  a  third  time,  passed  to  be 
enacted. 

"  Sent  up  for  concurrence 

"  Moses  Dow,  Speaker. 

"  In  Senate,  Feb.  16,  1791. 
"  This  bill  having  been  read  a  third  time — 
"  Voted,  That  the  same  be  enacted 

"  JosiAH    Bartlett,    President. 
"A  true  Copy.— Attest— 

"Joseph  Pearson,  Secretary." 

In  1 8 16  a  bill  was  passed  increasing  the  limit  of  mem- 
bership from  seventy  to  two  hundred. 

Dr.  Josiah  Bartlett,  who  was  the  first  president  of 
the  Society,  occupied  a  most  prominent  position  politically 
as  well  as  medically  in  New  Hampshire.     At  the  time 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  425 

of  the  Society's  incorporation  he  was  president  of  the 
State  of  New  Hampshire,  and  in  1791  became  the  first 
governor  of  that  State. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  in  New  Hampshire  as  well  as 
Massachusetts  the  subject  of  the  authorization  of  those 
who  desired  to  practise  medicine  was  left  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  medical  society  of  the  State. 

The  following  rules  regarding  the  licensing  of  medical 
practitioners  were  adopted  by  the  New  Hampshire  So- 
ciety : 

"  Sec.  I.  Qualification  of  Licentiates.  l.  No  candidate  for  the 
practice  of  Physic  and  Surgery  shall  be  admitted  to  examination, 
until  he  shall  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years. 

"  2.  He  shall  have  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  English  and 
Latin  Languages,  and  a  general  acquaintance  with  the  principles 
of  Geometry,  and  of  Natural  and  Moral  Philosophy. 

"  3.  He  shall  have  studied  three  full  years  under  the  direction  of 
some  reputable  Physician  or  Physicians,  possessing  the  requisite 
qualifications  for  consultation,  as  specified  in  Chap.  I.  Sec.  VH. 

"  Sec.  II.  Censors.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Censors  to  examine 
all  candidates  for  the  practice  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  that  pos- 
sess the  requisite  qualifications.  They  shall  meet  at  least  twice  in 
every  year  and  shall  give  public  notice  of  the  time  and  place  of  each 
meeting,  one  of  which  shall  be  the  day  preceding  the  annual  meeting 
of  the  Society.  Any  two  of  the  Censors  present  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  for  business.  In  every  examination,  the  following  course 
shall  be  pursued : — The  candidate  shall  be  called  on  for  written 
testimonials  of  his  having  complied  with  the  requisitions  of  the 
Society  in  respect  to  education ;  and  it  shall  be  especially  inquired, 
whether  any  portion  of  the  time  which  he  has  professed  to  devote 
to  his  professional  education,  has  been  employed  in  school-keeping, 
or  any  other  occupation  ;  and  all  time  so  employed  shall  be  deducted 
from  the  time  professedly  devoted  to  his  Medical  education.  Like- 
wise, the  candidate's  knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  and  of  the 
principles  of  Geometry,  and  of  Natural  and  Moral  Philosophy, 
shall  be  carefully  inquired  into,  and  fully  shewn,  either  from  teachers 
of  established  reputation  and  good  credit,  or  actual  examination ; 
and  in  every  case  where  the  Censors  are  not  fully  satisfied  on  these 
points,  the  examination  shall  close,  and  letters  of  approbation  and 
license  shall  be  refused.  In  case  the  Censors  are  satisfied  on  the 
points  above  stated,  the  candidate  shall  be  critically  examined  in  the 


426  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

following  branches,  viz.,  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Chemistry,  Materia 
Medica,  Midwifery,  Surgery,  Pathology,  and  Therapeutics ;  and  if 
the  acquirements  of  the  candidate  appear  to  be  such  as  to  qualify 
him  to  take  charge  of  the  lives  and  health  of  his  fellow-men,  he 
shall  receive  a  letter  of  approbation  and  license  of  the  form  follow- 
ing —  for  which  he  shall  pay  the  sum  of  Ten  Dollars,  to  be  de- 
voted exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  the  Library : — 

"  State  of  New  Hampshire. 

"  We,  the  Censors  of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society,  duly 
appointed  and  authorized,  have  examined  A.  B.,  of  C,  in  the  county 
of  D.,  a  candidate  for  the  practice  of  Physic  and  Surgery;  and 
having  found  him  qualified,  do  approve  and  license  him  a  practi- 
tioner in  Medicine  and  Surgery,  agreeably  to  Law  in  that  case  made 
and  provided. 

"  Dated  at  ,  this  —  day  of ,  A.D.  i8— 

r    H    I    Censors. 
"  By  virtue  of  the  power  in  me  vested,  I  have  hereunto  caused 
the  Seal  of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society  to  be  affixed. 

"  L  J.  President. 
"  Attest  K.  L.  Secretary." 

The  following  provision  was  made  in  cases  of  physi- 
cians from  other  parts  who  wished  to  practise  in  New 
Hampshire : 

"  Sec.  HL  Foreigners.  The  Censors,  upon  application  from  any 
person  educated  in  another  State  or  Country,  shall  examine  such 
evidence  as  he  shall  offer  for  the  purpose  of  proving  himself  duly 
qualified  to  practice  Medicine  and  Surgery;  and  if  it  shall  appear 
that  the  person  presenting  such  testimonials  has  received  an  educa- 
tion equal  to  that  required  by  this  Society,  the  Censors  shall  certify 
the  same  to  the  Secretary,  and  license  him  in  the  form  following: — 

"  State  of  New  Hampshire. 

"  We,  the  Censors  of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society,  duly 
appointed  and  authorized,  have  examined  the  Letters  Testimonial 
of  A.  B.,  of  C,  in  the  State  of  D.,  and  having  found  them  satis- 
factory, do  hereby  admit  him  to  all  the  privileges  of  those  who  have 
been  educated,  examined,  and  licensed  in  this  State. 

"  Dated  at  ,  this  —  day  of  ,  A.D.  i8— 

P    TT    (■  Censors. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  427 

"  By  virtue  of  the  power  in  me  vested,  I  have  hereunto  caused 
the  Seal  of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society  to  be  affixed. 

"  I.  J.  President. 
"  Attest  K.  L.  Secretary." 

The  Medical  and   Chirurgical  Faculty  of  the   State  of 

Maryland. 

This  venerable  Society  was  incorporated  by  the  Legis- 
lature of  that  State  in  1798.  The  first  meeting  was  held 
in  Annapolis,  on  the  first  Monday  in  June,  1799.  Its 
centennial  celebration  was  observed  with  fitting  exercises 
at  Baltimore  in  April,  1899. 

The  Medical  Collegium  of  the  Moravians  at  Bethlehem. 

Dr.  Charles  Mclntire,  of  Easton,  Pennsylvania,  has 
recently  published  a  most  interesting  address  entitled 
"  Physic  and  its  Practisers  in  Old  Northampton,"  in 
which  he  states  that  in  1744  Bishop  Spangenberg,  in 
reorganizing  the  Moravian  community  at  Bethlehem,  es- 
tablished a  "  Medical  Collegium,"  which  appears  to  have 
been  composed  of  laymen  as  well  as  physicians,  having 
for  its  object  the  care  of  the  health  of  the  community. 
An  infirmary  was  established  under  the  charge  of  the 
Collegium,  and  the  members  seem  to  have  held  meetings 
at  which  medical  matters  were  discussed.  I  do  not  think, 
however,  that  the  Medical  Collegium  can  be  classed  as  a 
medical  society. 

Dr.  Mclntire  quotes  Bishop  Levering  as  characterizing 
it  "as  the  combination  of  a  hospital  staff  and  a  board 
of  health,"  and  probably  this  estimate  of  its  functions  is 
the  correct  one. 

Codes  of  Ethics. 

Since  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  almost 
all  the  medical  societies  founded  in  the  United  States 
have  adopted  a  code  of  ethics  in  some  form  or  other. 


428  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

These  codes  are  practically  all  of  them  founded  on  the 
*'  Code  of  Ethics  for  the  Medical  Profession,"  by  Dr. 
Thomas  Percival,  an  English  physician  of  the  city  of 
Manchester,  who  was  born  in  1740  and  died  in  1804. 
He  was  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, Dr.  Priestley,  and  many  other  men  who  were  promi- 
nent in  science  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Dr.  Hayes 
prefixed  the  following  note  to  the  Code  of  Ethics  of  the 
American  Medical  Association: 

"  On  examining  a  great  number  of  Codes  of  Ethics  adopted  by 
different  societies  in  the  United  States,  it  was  found  that  they  were 
all  based  on  that  by  Dr.  Percival,  and  that  the  phrases  of  this  writer 
were  preserved  to  a  considerable  extent  in  all  of  them.  Believing 
that  language  so  often  examined  and  adopted  must  possess  the 
greatest  of  merits  for  such  a  document  as  the  present,  clearness 
and  precision,  and  having  no  ambition  for  the  honors  of  authorship, 
the  Committee  which  prepared  this  Code  have  followed  a  similar 
course,  and  have  carefully  preserved  the  words  of  Percival,  when- 
ever they  convey  the  precepts  it  is  wished  to  inculcate." 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  429 


CHAPTER    IX. 

PRE-REVOLUTIONARY    MEDICAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The  first  printing-press  in  America  was  put  up  at  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  in  1639,  and  was  under  the  con- 
trol of  Harvard  Cohege.  In  1662,  as  there  had  been  some 
publications  put  forth  from  it  which  seemed  "  to  open  the 
door  of  heresy,"  it  was  put  in  charge  of  two  licensers. 
The  strictest  supervision  was  maintained  over  everything 
put  forth  by  it.  Of  course  the  vast  majority  of  books 
printed  at  it  were  expositions  of  puritanical  theology. 
The  earliest  printing-press  erected  in  Virginia  was  not 
put  up  until  1 68 1,  and  for  many  years  it  was  throttled 
by  an  order  of  Governor  Effingham  prohibiting  its  use. 
From  1683  to  1729  no  printing  was  done  in  the  colony  of 
Virginia.  When  we  reflect  on  the  scarcity  of  printing 
appliances  and  that  practically  all  the  demand  for  litera- 
ture in  New  England  was  of  a  theological  nature,  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  books  dealing  with  the  natural 
sciences  should  be  but  rarely  written. 

The  first  man  to  publish  a  work  on  a  solely  medical 
topic  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Thacher,  who  was  born 
in  England  on  the  ist  of  May,  1620.  His  father  was  the 
Rev.  Peter  Thacher,  of  Sarum,  who  had  designed  emi- 
grating to  New  England  but  was  withheld  by  domestic 
reasons.  Thomas  arrived  in  America  in  1633  when  l)ut 
fifteen  years  of  age.  He  had  received  a  good  school  edu- 
cation in  the  old  country,  and  upon  his  arrival  in  New 
England  he  continued  his  studies  under  Dr.  Chauncy. 
who  afterwards  became  one  of  the  presidents  of  Plarvard 
College.     He  became  an  erudite  Oriental  scholar,  pub- 


430 


THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


lished  a  Hebrew  lexicon,  and  was  proficient  in  Arabic. 
Dr.  Mather  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  he  was 
an  admirable  mechanic  and  could  make  excellent  clocks. 
He  was  ordained  a  minister  at  Weymouth,  June  2,  1644. 
He  not  only  preached  the  gospel  but  also  practised  medi- 
cine in  that  town  until  his  removal  to  Boston,  where  he 
assumed  charge  of  a  church  and  became  eminent  also  as 
a  physician.  He  was  taken  ill  with  a  fever  shortly  after 
visiting  a  sick  patient,  and  died  on  the  15th  of  October, 
1678,  when  fifty-eight  years  old. 
Dr.  James  Thacher  ^  says, — 

"  As  a  preacher  he  was  very  popular,  being  remarkably  fluent  and 
copious  in  prayer.  He  was  zealous  against  the  Quakers,  for  he  be- 
lieved that  their  doctrine  subverted  the  gospel,  and  led  men  into 
the  pit  of  darkness  under  the  pretence  of  giving  them  light." 

Besides  a  Hebrew  lexicon  and  his  broadside  on  small- 
pox he  also  wrote  a  catechism.  In  1677  he  published  his 
"  Brief  Rule"  as  to  "  Small  Pocks."  This  was  the  first 
medical  publication  in  the  colonies.  It  was  printed  in 
double  column,  on  one  side,  as  a  poster,  fifteen  and  a  half 
by  ten  inches.  A  copy  of  it  is  in  the  Library  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia,  to  which  institution 
it  was  presented  by  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  and  from  it 
the  accompanying  fac-simile  has  been  made. 

In  the  following  lists  I  have  included  some  books  which 
were  not  only  medical  but  contained  other  matters,  also 
some  almanacs  and  other  writings  published  by  physi- 
cians, though  not  dealing  strictly  with  professional  mat- 
ters. In  some  instances  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any 
information  concerning  the  book  except  its  title,  and  in 
many  cases  the  latter  is  very  delusive,  as  the  theological 
writers  of  those  days  used  to  choose  the  most  fantastical 

^  American  Medical  Biography. 


mm^^ 


JL'..> 


R<tf 


'^"■'-ENGLAND 
mall  Pocks,    or  Mcafels. 


T 


HtfmnllPtx  C»hoAti«turt»mIciircrhe  Mittili  , 

s/     -  .■.v.^Mring  to  recovers  new  form  .-..t^  .... 

-pr^---t.  Bv  Scpar^'ionottbciHipuic  iroiudic 
■  >ui  the  \'ci m  to  the  Fleih.  — ; .  By  diiving  ok 
HcV. titjcSMn.  .  ^ 

t   T  ,  '    ■  i';r  ■    -JicFjiltourdiyft  hyaFcatcri'li  hoyli.'\_t;^EbiJ!ti- 

Xtw  0.  -nihciuipiuitiGsinthc  FIcihy  pan*  which  kindly  cffc'^^x! 

ihtf:.  C.I. 

4.  1  lion.ihcFlcfllloiJicS'vin,  or  J»;<f/tti>;isdoncJiroMgh 

iktrci''  ijCc. 

^     !  ors  in  nrc'cring  ihcfe  lie k ono in  both    .■_■{<:  Opcrarion>uf 

N;:urf '■.  ^".gcroii'an'JcommonTyilcaiilv  cither oyovcrniuchhaftcn 

i)gNifurc  'j  .:\  .  ■  'J  p.*ce,  or  in  hindering  of  it  frgiH  it*  O'-vn  vigorous  operation. 
<  The  5f  p.r.'.on  by  Ebullition  inihc  Fcjvcnfti  fcJt  is  over  heightned  by  t.io  inut!l 
Clothe!,  to  lio;  irooro  hotC»'«ij'/,  ai  DU(iirJit^,  Gtfifi  ^riir  indtmbUKc, 
for  hence  rorne  Pkmtjuy  dan^routeicertivefweati,  or  theflowng  of  the  Pocl:s-.in- 
'  to  one  o'.cr;';irea' nj;  fore,  vulgarly  called  the  FIox. 

!7. 1  be  fdtacGzperjiion  it  otcrrouch  hindred  by  prfpoftcroui  cooling  tint  fcavetilTi    ■ 
boyling  heit,  by  Hnilmmf,  Glj^n-s,  rimiti,f"l'i,  or  !•.«/(.;  midtsinti .  Fm  though 
ilefi:niinyrimeihaftentheeo«ingforthofihe'?'».r.  yet  thev  take  away  thai  fopply 
H  tiich  O.o'jid  keep  ihcia  otn  till  they  arc  lipe,  nhcttibcc  ihey  finJi  in  igain  to  the  io'l- 
jly  danger  of  the  fick. 
I     8  IfaMrj.yi, hjppen.orthtougVa  Pfctjrj-  (tbatisfuIcefiofbloodythcCireuij- 

I'tion  of  the  b!»gd  be  hindicd,  mi,  thereupon  the  whole  inaU  ofUood  choakeJ  up.  thj.i 
eitba  lei  blood.Or  fee  ih.'t  theji  diet,  or  mcJicincs  henoi  altogcihci  cool.nj,  Kutlct  | 
ihera  m  no  »Je  be  heating,  iheref  ):e  let  him  lye  no  oihcnvifc  covered  in  hit  bed  then  he  | 
i<\air'oilinSc»lrh:  His  Chamhci  not  made  hoi  with  fire  ifthc  weather  be  !caij)cri!c,  ! 
lethimdrinkfinallRccronly  mrm'-J  with  i  Toft  Iithimfup  up  thin  »4i(r-»>>»c/yor  «.i-  ! 
iff/M/(iiudconIyofln.lunflourjnJ  i«.i!cr,  mrtead  <if  Oji-w«/ ;  Lcthiraeat^w'V  j 
/*W«ii  Bui  I  wouldooiidvil<?.i:ihi>  time  any  medicine  bcfiJcs.  By  this  means  rhate"-  ' 
eefTKc  £*»//i(;.«  (  or  hoyhng  ol  hi- bUio>! )  •.viilliydcgiccv  abate,  and  the  Syinptonii  \ 
ceal'ci  Ifnoi,  bui  the  blood  be  fa  inragc.^  that  it  will  adjiiii  no  delay-,  then  cither  ' 
let  blood  ( if  Age  will  bear  it )  orcUcgivc  lomc  notably  cooling  mcdiriDC,  orrcfrcth 
.him  with  more  lice  Air.  1 

I  9.  But  if  the  Nuling  of  the  Moed  h;  »eaV  v\l  doll  that  t'lcre  is  caufc  to  fear  it  is  not 
i  able  to  work  a  Separation .  at  i^s  Wont  to  be  iR  I'ui  h  aa  luvc  been  let  blood,  or  arc  fft.  oi 
'  Flegnuiict.  or  brought  low  by  fomc  ojr.r  fuknefv  or  lah-^'jr  of  thc(  <;••»"(»*  )  run- 
j  niflg  of  the  Rcim,  or  lomc  oirtcr  Ev.itui'iion ;  InfuJi  C*ti.  Ctrdidii  muft  drive  th^w 
I  outiorihcyniuO  dy  I 

I  ic.  Intinittof  drising  out  the  />(rf  i  fr.-xn  (tie  FIcfli  licre  care  mufl  be  had  that  the 
I /'«*«/<•/ Vccpou:  ii>a  n^t  meafurc  nil  they  bare  aCaiil'j  ihciicnd  without  going  in 
ag.in  luit)...!!  Lf«lly. 

I.    .  t.  tni»,,>t,-^t4kchecdw1icnbe  /V^'/'iappe*' ohilftnot  yet  npe,  Icaftbytoo 
j  tnlKhhsnitlfKIt 'tiff  »  new  *»»«uj«  (  off  cavcnllvfoyli'ig;  for  ihisiroublestlie  dri- 
lling o-i*  ,  Oi  fcr!rnsh«ckthcfe(uraiec<  pans  into  the  blood  ,  orihe  Fleiby  parts  over- ' 
'!  healed  ffc  cliubi'  d  Imen  •  figbi  fupftiration  or  laffb/  the  icmper  of  ihc  hlood  and  tone 
iofthcFIeOiisropctvcru^lhuil  t;  loot  overcome  anil  digeftlhemarrcrdrncneut. 
I     ti-  Yet  M  thr  afhw  hwd  the  'i-raVinf;  oat  mud  n n  be  himlred,  ^y  eipofng  the 
(Ick  onto  the  <'>ld.    Tbedo<}reeoflic»l  mufS  liefbet'M  i>natuial  agiees -.iiih  ihciem- 
ftX'  thellefhypirri:   rhii  •«  •iiSc.iccisur  Ullslhott  i.  danjjcrom  :   IVieforeihe 
I  feafoaofi...   ear,  A<;f.)f the  lick,  and  thcii  niannii  ol  li'eherc  rv.ii.MCaddirc.tanJ 
'  tjiftrn:  Cot  '<krttio>  requiring  the  Ct  uitfrl  of  an  apeii  Pbyfiiian. 
I      I  >.  But  il  hy  any  error  a  new  FiMun  irifet)i,ihc  lanie  an  mult  be  ufed  :o  allay  it 
ftsisbefofeexpfcft. 

•14. If  ike  P«»4»  go  ician.1  a  flui  of  ihe  bcllv  folloses  (for  ell'e  ihcre  is  nofuch  danger) 
ihniCciiia//  aieio  be  uled,yet  noi'c.-ale  in.l  »ot  100  oltcr.  lor  feat  of  nciv  /*•..   ■  .... 
H-  FCinu'h';i;'iin(>(  Fij4iilmu,)ti,\\fi\  vnuma^  hopealh'ill  go  well,  ihetcfrrc- by 
ooroeanshirv  ti  11  :  'July  vsiih  svarminull  !*<.^l« 'hen  mouths  lie  w-jOkcI. 

It.  When  the  f.^/tuictrycd  in+ljiisii  r'l'^r-sell,  eipeo-lly  if  ii  lie  in  Ajx.mt. 

ir    Al  foon  a»  this  dHcilclhcril,.ci!.,pp'»n  livil' li;"  .  I.-I  die  ii.  k  ahflanttj.ni. 

IWh  11"  ".Vi'x.  ..r, '.,,  ir.  «.,r,  V;  1  ,ri  ,/rt..n!I  H..;' v*.,..-'  x  .rh  i  T  n  f...  hil  vu'X- 


egrcanei 


jrcwort.   InSummcrlcthimrifcjcconJiiigtocinlonicvc:  was  i.! ' 
from  heit  and  told  in  Execfs.^the  difeafc  will  be  the  fooiKr  over  ar.-*  i  ■  \-.yc        -i 
toe  being  kept  m  bi;<;  nouriftetb  the  Fcavcrilh  heat  and  iti.;',mh-  /"trii  '(fus  oc 
«ij|«  f  ainJui  iniUinalicii. 

i9.%acoWcrie»fo»  tni  bre»iung forth ofa  muliimd.of /•«?.,'</,■  forc^c  V  f^j 
to  keep  his  bed.  let  hira  be  coveted  .scrording  lohiscuftoaicinhcakh.  .i  modcr.te  ai 
inihe»imcrK.ingki.-idlcdinhi5  Oiandicr.  .iwrninE  and  EveniTg.-  ncithti  ina!  I 
keep  hu  Anus  il«  ayes  in  W,  or  ly  n,;i  .n  the  fjaic  place,  lorfcarleaft  lie  fool. 
Iiscatnhich  is  very  dingcrousei'peculiy  loyoutb. 

20.  Before  the  fourth  day  ufe.nonicdicincstodrivcoiji,  nor le  too  llr  a  "iihthu 
fxk;  for  by  hon-  much  the  more  gcr^ly  the  Fuf,!,,  do  2ro-,v,  S  lb  much  the  folic-  an: 
pcrfeftcrsvdisiic  Separation  be-  ' 

a  1.  Oiihe foutihcay a  gentle  Csri/ia'nuy  h.lo  onee gisen. 

;  i.  From  that  time  a  fiiiall  dr.ughi  of  warm  iniik  Cn»e  hot<  a  li:;le  dy'd  iviih  S, 
(•■"  miy  be  given  nionung  and  cseiimg  till  the  fifdn-^n  coiiiciu  :!;iir  due  grca-ni 
and  ripcncfs. 

-  J.  \Vhen  the  f  «^«J,  r  b;gin  to  Ory  an  '  tiMft.  IcH  the  rotien  va.ii.un  ftriken.sard 
whjeh  fcfflei.raeseinfethluddeo  death;  Take  msm..^i.' and  evening  lomc  tciiipeiaje 
C*i'i6j/asfouror  hvefpoonfulsof  .1/4^;*H'i«#tingc..  ...th  a  littloa/'-M. 

a4.  Whenihe  />»^».V/ir:c'rydandfiJlenofr,p.jrgeonccanda!;ain.  cfpecianviil 
the  J„,mm  Pui,,.  =  r         I 

;j.  Beware  of  aooiniing  with  Oi//,  ruii.oinimm,.  ai>dfuchOefcp5ves,rorKt<'.Q 
iiigtfie  comipied  matter  ii  the  •'«,?«/</  irora  drvmg  up,'iv  ihanioiilurc  they  Ire.  iilt 
er  into  the  Flcfti,  and  I*  laake  the  more  d.vp  Scsir,. 

a«.  The  y.iung  and  lively  men  thai  arcroight  to  a  i-lcmiful,  fiveai  in  t'l;-  \  kne's, 
shout  the  ci.5!:th  day  the  fiseat  flop,  oi  it  fell',  bv  no  means  atiei  war 'sic  b:'  1 .  ooct 
againi  the  i:ck  thereupon  feels  moll  rroableiomc  dilreft  an.1  lnguilh,JD<ithcBn.J(.lv 
al>andanceolss1lteranu^odycs. 

Few  young  men  and  ft'ong  thus  handled efcJpf,:»eepiihey&ll  into  abimdaiicco{ 
fpittmgur  plentifulbfccdingatihcnole. 

j7- Signs  difcoveringihe  \Ciultat  Kiftare  beating  pain  inthe  head.  Foreficad  and 
tempicspajnio ih«  baik,giejt llicpiner>,gli(lrinj ol  the e\es,thming  glimmering*  iccro 
licTorc  Ihtm. Itching  ot them  alfo.  with  tears  flowing  of  ihemfilsesjichingol  ibeNi.fe, 
niortbrc.ih,dryO»ugh»ijfc«icering,  hoariinefs,  heat.  redncU,  and  fenfc  of  pricking 
overtheivholebody,  lerrur,  mihcllecp  forrowjnd  re(llef.n«f-,  beatingof  the  heart, 
Zfrim  (oKieiiffics  as  in  health,  fometinic  filthy  Iromgrcic  Eimllnin,  and  all  thiior  uu- 
ny  ofthefcvntha  Feavenlh  t'lftcmper. 

'  iS.  Si.ns  warning  ofihc  prob.iblc  Esent.  If  rtxy  break  forth  eafily,  qui. Uy,  and 
founcoiiK  16  ripening,  ii  the  Sympiouir*  be  gentle,  the  Fe.ivcr  mild,  and  attcT  tin 
breal-in" ''iittiltab*t:s  Ifthc  voice  Lie  lrec,an'j  breathing  eafics  cfpecially  ifthePo: 
.bcred  viiiie  diftlhas  fofi  feis,  round,  ftiarpiop'd  only  withoui  aninot  mthcia 
ssard  ^.i.:-',  1/ there  be  large  bleeding  at  thcnoli;.   Thefefigns  arc  hopeful 

?V  Biit  I'uch  figns  a  re  doubtful,  ivhen  they  ilitfkultly  appear,  sshen  they  fink  in  • 
gain  aiicn  ihevarc  black, hlcisifh,grcen.  hard, all  inoue,  if  UicFeavef  ahaton-.tisitb 
iheir  brcal  iiiijfonh.  if  there  K  S -ooning,diflsculivol  breathing,  great  thirl^quinicy, 
gfcatun  imctncls.  an'  it  i»scr\  i!.ingcruu>,  il there  be  loyn'dwilh  ufotQ^  other nt.lig 
nam  Feaver.callcd  by  foine  the  pcltilenlial  Pok-  the  Sfurd  Fttvl*^  oft  j«yncd  »ilh  n 

iv   Deadly  Signs  ifthe  f/'r  of  ihc  i'lh  happen,  isheBiJiryAMtirokc  frn&,  H^ 
Urine  be  bit  ody,  orhUck,orthe  Of*>r»of  ihat  Oiloi.r,  Orlfouic  blood  b<Aa4 
by  the  Uelly  or  Cuinm:  Thcfe  fiigns  ate  Icr  the  moll  |satt  dcadVr. 

rfc/5  't'"/i  ««w /"•."r.Ondid Reader,  •««;•■  V»t*f  iiar«.<Phyfitia«ik<i 

/..jfl.  i.i»rt»ilvfa»,'"»»«'"'."a  fU-  fltitm,  It  lii  di!<t'i  lijm  /,(«!  ff|iw /(w  /  -^ 
„  ,h,;i  t'<M  hm  .rl  [tiktiv,m,j,„,  /„,„  .  litdilftmllj  .,'  lix  ii/>V'  '•  '*'  Phyfit. 

ilr  -''»,''  i'-«i  tik  f  i4r  Paiicnts  /i-Vis,  ..i/iir  Phyfitiaiu  dif'if  Stem, 

ki,    /*..»i,...*r<(,.».:     Far   i.    i,<,,    k  ,»,    Pllyfuuns    /»rl    Imfi'JiJ ,   if  iLf.   ..  - 

Mi'rr  4  Regular  Rig.mcnt.     /  aw,  liro-t  >.  Phyfrun,  )n  t  xtill  v, 
f,^:     y«a<l«s./<./  ivrul.fl  1*1  Itrd  It  Imrm  Mr  *««-l/,  fif^jkmk, 

Ariicnd.Rci.leri 


ft  F4 


1.,    II.    167; 


\\c 


IhoniM  Th'-tcher. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  431 

titles,  and  often  used  physical  terms  in  relation  to  spirit- 
ual matters.  I  have  also  included  works  by  Cotton 
Mather  and  others  which  refer  to  medical  matters  of 
interest. 

1694.  Oliver,  John.  "  A  Present  to  be  given  to  Teem- 
ing Women  by  their  Husbands  and  Friends.  Boston — 
Reprinted  by  Benj.  Harris." 

1695.  "An  AJmanac  by  C.  Lodovick,  Physician — 
Boston." 

1698.  Mather,  Cotton.  "  Mens  Sana  in  Corpore  Sano. 
A  Discourse  on  Recovery  from  Sickness."  (i2mo,  pp. 
68.    Boston.) 

1713.  Mather,  Cotton.  "  Wholesome  Words — A  Visit 
of  Advice,  Given  unto  Families  That  are  Visited  with 
Sickness;  By  a  Pastoral  Letter,  briefly  declaring  the 
Duties  incumbent  on  all  Persons  in  the  Families  that  have 
any  Sick  Persons  in  them."      (16  mo,  pp.  24.     Boston.) 

There  are  several  other  works  by  Cotton  Mather  bear- 
ing medical  titles  but  treating  of  theological  matters. 
Thus,  in  171 4  he  published  "  Insanabilia,  An  Essay  upon 
Incurables,  aimed  at  the  Comfort  and  Counsel  of  many 
who  encounter  things  for  which  there  is  no  Remedy  but 
Patience,"  and  in  171 7,  "  Febrifugium,  An  Essay  for 
the  Cure  of  Ungodly  Anger." 

Likewise  we  find  a  treatise  published  at  Boston  in  1723 
entitled  "  Euthanasia ;  or  Sudden  Death  made  Happy 
and  Easy  to  the  Dying  Believer;  Exemplified  in  John 
Frizell." 

About  the  year  1720  Cadwallader  Colden  published 
"An  Account  of  the  Diseases  and  Climate  of  New  York." 
Colden  was  a  Scotchman  who,  after  studying  in  Edin- 
burgh and  Al)erdeen,  came  to  Philadelphia  in  1708.  He 
went  home  to  England  in  171 5,  but  returned  to  America 
in  1 716,  and  two  years  later  settled  in  New  York  City 


432  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

to  practise  medicine.  He  subsequently  occupied  many 
positions  of  public  trust,  and  in  1761  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  the  province.  He  had  a  beautiful 
country-seat  named  Coldenham,  near  Newburgh,  on  the 
Hudson.  The  plant  Coldenia  was  first  described  by  his 
daughter,  and  was  named  after  Dr.  Golden  by  Linnaeus. 
Dr.  Golden  died  on  September  28,  1776. 

1 71 2.  This  was  the  year  in  which  inoculation  was 
introduced,  and  we  find  a  number  of  pamphlets  concern- 
ing it. 

Dr.  Zabdiel  Boylston  published  "  Some  Account  of 
what  is  said  of  Inoculation,  or  Transplanting  the  Small 
Pox,  by  Dr.  Emanuel  Timonnis  and  Jacobus  Pylarini, 
with  Remarks  on  the  Lawfulness  of  the  Method." 
(i6mo,  pp.  22,.    Boston.) 

Benjamin  Golman  published  "  Some  Observations  on 
the  new  method  of  receiving  the  Small  Pox  by  Ingraft- 
ing or  Inoculation."     (i2mo,  pp.  16.     Boston.) 

A  Mr.  Grainger  wrote  "  The  Imposition  of  Inocula- 
tion as  a  Duty  religiously  considered."  (i2mo,  pp.  18. 
Boston.) 

The  two  following  letters  were  among  the  effusions 
put  forth : 

(i)  "A  Letter  to  a  Friend  in  the  Gountry,  attempt- 
ing a  Solution  of  the  Objections  against  Inoculation." 
(8vo.     Boston.) 

(2)  "A  Letter  from  one  in  the  Gountry  to  his  Friend 
in  the  Gity;  in  Relation  to  the  Distress  occasioned  by 
Inoculation."      (8vo.     Boston.) 

Gotton  Mather  produced  two  articles  on  the  subject  of 
Inoculation : 

(i)  "A  Solution  of  the  Scruples  of  a  Religious  or 
Gonscientious  Nature  against  Inoculation."  (i2mo. 
Boston.) 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  433 

(2)  "An  Account  of  the  Method  and  further  Success 
of  Inoculation  for  the  Small  Pox  in  London."  (8vo. 
Boston. ) 

Increase  Mather  wrote  "  Some  further  Account  from 
London  of  the  Small  Pox  inoculated ;  with  some  further 
Remarks  on  a  late  scandalous  Pamphlet  entitled  Inocula- 
tion, &c."  (2d  ed.,  i6mo,  pp.  8.  Boston),  and  also 
"  Several  Reasons  proving  that  Inoculation  is  a  Lawful 
Practice,  &c."     (Single  sheet,  folio.     Boston.) 

John  Williams  wrote  "Arguments  proving  that  In- 
oculation of  Small  Pox  is  not  contained  in  the  Law  of 
Physics,  either  natural  or  divine,  and  therefore  unlawful. 
With  a  Reply  to  Increase  Mather."  (i2mo,  pp.  20. 
Boston. ) 

An  anonymous  hand  wrote  "A  Letter  to  John  Wil- 
liams attempting  Solutions  to  his  Scruples  respecting 
Inoculation." 

1722.  Dr.  William  Douglass,  of  Boston,  at  that  time 
the  most  prominent  medical  man  of  the  city,  published 
the  three  following  screeds :  "  Inoculation  of  the  Small 
Pox  as  Practised  in  Boston,  considered  in  a  Letter  to 
A.[lexander]  S.[tuart],  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  in  London." 
(i2mo.  Boston.)  "Inoculation.  The  Abuses  and 
Scandals  of  some  late  Pamphlets  in  favor  of  Inocula- 
tion modestly  obviated,  and  Inoculation  further  consid- 
ered, in  a  Letter  to  A.  [lexanderl  S.  [tuart] ,  M.D.,  F.R.S." 
(i2mo.  Boston.)  "Postscript  to  the  Above,  Being  a 
short  Answer  to  Matters  of  fact,  &c.  misrepresented  in 
a  late  doggerel  Dialogue  (between  Academicus  and 
Sawny,  &c)."  (8vo.  Boston.)  In  the  same  year  John 
Williams  wrote  an  "  Answer  to  the  Letter  addressed 
to  him,  attempting  to  remove  his  Scruples  respecting 
Inoculation  for  the  Small  Pox."  (16  mo,  pp.  18. 
Boston. ) 

28 


434 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


1723.  There  was  published  in  this  year  an  edition  of 
a  book  which  went  through  many  subsequent  editions 
and  would  appear  to  have  had  a  large  sale, — namely, 
"  Curiosities  of  Common  Water ;  Or  the  Advantages 
thereof  in  Preventing  and  Curing  many  Distempers,  by 
John  Smith,  printed  by  S.  Keimer  of  Philadelphia." 

1724.  Dr.  Darby  Dawne  published  "  Health,  a  Poem, 
Shewing  how  to  Procure,  Preserve  and  Restore  it.  To 
Which  is  annexed  The  Doctors  Decade.  4th  edition.  Cor- 
rected."    (Small  4to,  pp.  27.     Boston.) 

Samuel  Keimer  printed  a  book  the  title  of  which  sounds 
interesting,  "  Distinct  Notions  of  the  Plague."  I  have 
been  unable  to  see  a  copy  or  learn  anything  concerning 
the  nature  of  its  contents. 

1726.  Inoculation  literature  continued  to  flourish  for 
many  years  after  the  first  introduction  of  the  practice. 
In  this  year  Increase  Mather  wrote  "  Several  Reasons 
for  proving  that  Inoculating  or  Transplanting  the  Small 
Pox  is  a  lawful  Practice,  and  that  it  has  been  blessed  by 
God  for  the  saving  of  many  a  Life." 

1728.  Dr.  Zabdiel  Boylston,  the  first  to  inoculate  in 
America,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Small  Pox  Inocu- 
lated in  New  England." 

In  1730  he  again  issues  "  History  of  the  Small  Pox  In- 
oculated in  New  England  upon  all  sorts  of  Persons. 
With  Directions  to  the  Inexperienced.  Dedicated  to  her 
Royal  Highness  the  Princess  of  Wales."  This  resulted 
in  the  publication  of  a  "  Letter  to  Dr.  Zabdiel  Boylston, 
occasioned  by  a  late  Dissertation  concerning  Inoculation 
of  the  Small  Pox." 

Benjamin  Colman  wrote  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Success 
and  Method  of  Inoculating  the  Small  Pox  in  New  Eng- 
land, with  a  Reply  to  the  Objections  against  it  from 
Principles  of  Conscience." 


IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  435 

William  Cooper  also  came  to  the  support  of  inocula- 
tion in  a  "  Reply  to  the  Objections  against  taking  the 
Small  Pox  in  the  Way  of  Inoculation." 

Dr.  Douglass  continued  to  attack  the  practice,  and 
published  two  articles  against  it, — viz.,  ''A  Practical 
Essay  concerning  the  Small  Pox,  &c.,"  and  "A  Disserta- 
tion concerning  the  inoculation  of  the  Small  Pox." 

There  was  also  published  in  this  year  "  Inoculation,  A 
Dissertation  concerning  Inoculation  of  the  Small  Pox. 
Giving  some  Account  of  the  Rise,  Progress,  Success,  Ad- 
vantages, and  Disadvantages  of  receiving  the  small  Pox 
by  Incisions.  Illustrated  by  sundry  Cases  of  the  Inocu- 
lated," and  "  A  Sermon  preached  at  St.  Andrews,  Hol- 
born,  July  8,  1722,  by  Rev.  Edmund  Massey,  against  the 
Dangerous  and  Sinful  Practice  of  Inoculation."  The 
latter  was  reprinted  from  the  third  English  edition. 

In  1730  was  also  published  a  book  which  had  a  wide 
circulation, — namely,  "The  American  Instructor;  or 
Young  Man's  Best  Companion.  To  which  is  added,  the 
Poor  Planters  Physician;  with  prudent  Advice  to  young 
Tradesmen."  This  edition  was  reprinted  at  Philadel- 
phia. Where  it  was  first  put  forth  I  do  not  know,  but 
it  went  through  many  subsequent  editions. 

A  curious  little  publication  was  an  "  Elegy  on  the 
Death  of  that  Ancient,  Venerable,  and  Useful  Matron 
and  Midwife,  Mrs.  Mary  Broadwell,  who  rested  from 
her  labours  Jan.  2,  1730,  aged  100  years  and  one  day." 
Published  at  Philadelphia. 

1732.  This  year  Benjamin  Franklin  reprinted  at 
Philadelphia  a  book  originally  printed  in  London,  which 
rejoiced  in  the  following  title :  ''  The  Horrour  of  the 
Gout;  Or  a  Rational  Discourse  demonstrating  that  the 
Gout  is  one  of  the  greatest  Blessings  which  can  befal 
Mortal  Man ;  that  all  Gentlemen  who  are  weary  of  it  are 


436  THE   HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

their  own  Enemies ;  that  those  practitioners  who  offer  at 
the  Cure  are  the  vainest  and  most  mischievous  Cheats 
in  Nature.  By  way  of  a  Letter  to  an  Eminent  Citizen. 
Wrote  in  the  heat  of  a  violent  Paroxysm,  and  now  pub- 
hshed  for  the  Common  Good.  By  Philander  Misiatrus." 
This  is  a  very  witty  and  amusing  publication,  giving  us 
an  idea  of  what  gout  meant  to  its  sufferers  in  those  days. 

Thomas  Harward  published  "  Electuarium  Novum 
Alexipharmacum,  A  new  Cordial,  Alexiterical  and  Re- 
storative Electuary."  It  was  in  twenty-six  pages,  octavo, 
and  was  a  treatise  on  pharmacy.  Harward  was  a  clergy- 
man. 

John  Walton  published  at  Boston  an  "  Essay  on 
Fevers." 

1733.  The  Rev.  Samuel  Hall  published  "  Bitter  Af- 
flictions remembered  and  improved.  Sermon  occasioned 
by  the  raging  of  the  Small  Pox  in  New  Cheshire."  It 
was  issued  at  New  London. 

1734.  Benjamin  Franklin  published  a  new  edition  of 
the  "  Poor  Planters  Physician,"  under  the  title  of  "  Every 
Man  his  own  Doctor;  or  the  Poor  Planters  Physician. 
Prescribing  plain  and  easy  Means  for  Persons  to  cure 
themselves  of  all,  or  most  of  the  Distempers  incident  to 
this  Climate,  and  with  very  little  Charge,  the  Medicines 
being  chiefly  of  the  Growth  and  Production  of  this  Coun- 
try." It  must  have  given  pleasure  to  the  practical  Frank- 
lin to  print  a  book  of  such  great  utility.  Hildeburn  ^  says 
of  it, — 

"  This  popular  work  was  probably  written  by  John  Tennent,  and 
was  first  printed  at  Williamsburg.  It  was  imprinted  by  Franklin 
in  1736,  and  incorporated  in  the  ninth  edition  of  Fisher's  '  American 
Instructor,'  Philadelphia,  1748.  A  translation  into  German  was  pub- 
lished in  1749." 

"  The  Issues  of  the  Press  in  Pennsylvania. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  437 

1736.  Dr.  William  Douglass  published  "A  Practical 
History  of  a  new  Epidemic,  Eruptive,  Miliary  Fever, 
which  prevailed  in  Boston  in  the  years  1735  and  1736." 

Jabez  Fitch  published  an  "  Account  of  the  Throat  Dis- 
temper, then  prevalent  in  Newhampshire."  This  "  dis- 
temper" was  diphtheria,  and  was  identical  with  the  fever 
described  by  Douglass. 

Dr.  John  Tennent  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Pleu- 
risy" at  Williamsburg,  Virginia. 

^7Z7-  John  Brown  published  a  "  Relation  of  some  of 
the  remarkable  Deaths  among  the  Children  of  Haverhill, 
under  the  late  Distemper  in  the  Throat;  with  an  Ad- 
dress to  the  Bereaved."  (Boston.)  This  was  the  same 
epidemic  of  which  Fitch  and  Douglass  wrote. 

1738.  We  find  William  Cooper  writing  a  "  Reply  to 
the  objections  which  have  been  made  against  Inoculating 
for  the  Small  Pox."     (8vo.    Boston.) 

Joseph  Emerson  published  "  A  Word  to  those  that  are 
afflicted  very  much.  A  sermon  in  Maiden,  Oct.  20th, 
1738.  On  the  repeated  Deaths  of  Children  in  said  Town, 
by  the  Throat  Distemper."     (8vo,  pp.  26.     Boston.) 

1739.  This  year  we  find  only  an  anonymous  "  Letter 
about  a  Good  Management  under  the  Distemper  of  the 
Measles,  at  this  time  spreading  in  the  Country,"  which 
was  published  at  Boston. 

1 74 1.  Dr.  Cadwallader  Colden,  of  New  York,  pub- 
lished an  "  Essay  on  the  Iliac  Passion,"  which  was  printed 
by  Benjamin  Franklin. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Cole  published  a  "  Dissertation  on  In- 
oculating for  the  Small  Pox"  at  New  London. 

1743.  In  this  year  Dr.  John  Lining  published,  in  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,"  an  arti- 
cle containing  the  results  of  a  series  of  experiments  made 
upon  himself  in  the  year  1740.     Norris  says  these  experi- 


438  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

ments  were  among  the  most  valuable  of  their  kind  that 
have  ever  been  published.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the 
year  1740  he  made  careful  observations  upon  himself, 
ascertaining  his  weight  each  morning  and  evening,  to- 
gether with  the  weight  of  his  food,  and  of  his  urinary 
and  alvine  discharges.  Dr.  Lining  was  a  Scotchman,  who 
came  to  America  in  1 730  and  settled  in  Charleston,  South 
Carolina.  He  was  a  correspondent  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin's, and  was  the  first  person  to  bring  an  electrical  ap- 
paratus into  South  Carolina.  In  1753  he  published  in 
the  "  Edinburgh  Essays  and  Observations"  an  account 
of  the  "  American  Yellow  Fever." 

1745.  "  The  Art  of  Preserving  Health,  A  Poem,  in 
Four  Books,  by  John  Armstrong,"  was  reprinted  at  Phila- 
delphia. I  have  a  copy  of  this  most  prosy  and  uninter- 
esting medical  compend  in  poetry  in  my  possession.  It 
merely  recites  the  rules  of  hygienic  living  necessary  to 
health.  The  author  was  an  English  physician,  a  great 
friend  of  Thomson,  the  poet. 

There  was  also  published  out  of  Bishop  George 
Berkley's  famous  book  "  An  Abstract  from  his  Treatise 
on  Tar  Water,  adapted  to  Diseases  frequent  in  America. 
By  a  Physician." 

Dr.  Thomas  Cadwalader  published  his  "  Essay  on  the 
West  India  Dry  Gripes.  With  the  Method  of  Preventing 
and  Curing  that  Cruel  Distemper.  To  which  is  added  an 
Extraordinary  Case  in  Physick."  (4to.  Philadelphia.) 
It  was  printed  by  Benjamin  Franklin. 

Dr.  George  W.  Norris  ^  says  "  West  India  Dry  Gripes" 
resulted  from  our  forefathers'  habit  of  drinking  punch. 

"  This  beverage  was  made  from  Jamaica  Rum,  and  was  the 
fashionable  drink,  until  pointed  out  as  giving  rise  to  the  disease  in 

^  Early  History  of  Medicine  in  Philadelphia. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  439 

question,  which  it  did,  in  consequence  of  containing  poisoning  quali- 
ties derived  from  the  leaden  pipes  which  were  used  in  its  distilla- 
tion." 

The  curious  case  v.as  one  of  osteomalacia. 
Dr.  Cadwallader  Colden  published  in  this  year  "An 
Essay  on  Yellow  Fever." 

1748.  An  anonymous  work  published  at  Boston  this 
year  was  entitled  "  A  Treatise  proving  that  most  of  the 
Diseases  incident  to  the  Fair  Sex  are  owing  to  Flatu- 
lencies not  seasonably  vented." 

1749.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Prince,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  his  ecclesiastic  predecessor,  Bishop  Berkley, 
wrote  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Success  of  Tar  Water."  (8vo, 
pp.  90.  Boston. )  He  also  wrote  an  appendix  to  Thomas 
Prior's  "  Authentic  Narrative  of  the  Success  of  Tar 
Water." 

Somewhere  about  1749  or  1750  Dr.  John  Bard  wrote 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Nature  of  the  Malignant  Pleurisy  that 
proved  so  remarkably  fatal  to  the  Inhabitants  of  Hun- 
tington, Long  Island,  and  some  other  places  on  Long 
Island,  in  the  winter  of  1749.  Drawn  up  at  the  request 
of  a  Weekly  Society  of  Gentlemen  in  New  York,  and 
addressed  to  them  at  one  of  their  meetings."  There  is 
nothing  to  indicate  that  this  work,  the  manuscript  of 
which  is  in  the  Library  of  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Medicine,  was  published,  though  the  statement  is  some- 
times made  that  it  was  so.  Dr.  Bard  was  a  very  distin- 
guished man.  In  1760  he  published  in  the  London 
(England)  Medical  Observations  and  Inquiries  "A 
Case  of  Extra-Uterine  Foetus." 

1750.  Philadelphia  became  the  centre  of  a  medical 
controversy  this  year  which  caused  quite  a  literary  battle 
to  ensue. 

A  Scotch  physician,  Dr.  Adam  Thompson,  who  had 


440  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

emigrated  to  Maryland  and  later  had  settled  in  Philadel- 
phia, published  "  A  Discourse  on  the  Preparation  of  the 
Body  for  the  Small  Pox;  And  the  Manner  of  receiving 
the  Infection.  As  it  was  deliver'd  in  the  Publick  Hall  of 
the  Academy  before  the  Trustees,  and  others,  on  Wednes- 
day, the  2 1st  of  November,  1750,"  which  was  printed  by 
Franklin.  In  it  he  advocated  giving  the  patient  to  be 
inoculated  a  preparatory  course  of  antimony  and  mer- 
cury. He  said  his  idea  was  founded  upon  the  teachings 
of  Boerhaave. 

1 75 1.  Dr.  John  Kearsley,  famous  as  the  architect  of 
the  State  House  and  Christ  Church,  published  in  this 
year  "  A  Letter  to  a  Friend ;  Containing  Remarks  on  a 
Discourse  Proposing  a  Preparation  of  the  Body  for  the 
Small  Pox.  And  the  Manner  of  receiving  the  Infection. 
With  some  Practical  Hints  relating  to  the  Cure  of  the 
Dumb  Ague,  Lung  Fever,  the  Bilious  Fever,  and  some 
other  Fevers,  incidental  to  this  Province."  It  was 
printed  by  Franklin.  A  reply  to  this  was  issued  in  "  A 
Defence  of  Doctor  Thompson's  Discourse  on  the  Prepara- 
tion of  the  Body  for  the  Small  Pox,  etc.  Wherein  every- 
thing that  has  yet  been  advanced  against  it  is  fairly  ex- 
amined; particularly  Dr.  Mead's  Censure  of  Dr. 
Boerhaave's  opinion  concerning  a  specific  Antidote,  and 
Mr.  Kearsley's  Remarks.  In  a  letter  to  a  Physician  in 
Philadelphia,  By  Alexander  Hamilton,  Physician  at  An- 
napolis, in  Maryland."  This  came  from  the  press  of 
William  Bradford. 

In  this  year  was  printed  by  Franklin  a  book  with  the 
following  comprehensive  summary  of  its  contents  as  a 
title:  "  Medicina  Britanica;  Or  a  Treatise  on  such 
Physical  Plants  as  are  Generally  to  be  found  in  the 
Fields  or  Gardens  in  Great  Britain;  Containing  a  par- 
ticular Account  of  their  Nature,  Virtue,  and  Uses.    To- 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  441 

gether  with  the  Observations  of  the  most  learned  Physi- 
cians, as  well  ancient  as  modern,  communicated  to  the 
late  Mr.  Ray,  and  the  learned  Dr.  Sim.  Pauli,  Adapted 
more  especially  to  the  Occasions  of  those  whose  Condi- 
tion or  Conditions  or  Situation  of  Life  deprives  them, 
in  a  great  Measure  of  the  Helps  of  the  Learned.  By 
Tho.  Short,  of  Sheffield,  M.D.  To  which  is  added.  An 
Appendix;  Containing  the  True  Preparation,  Preserva- 
tion, Uses  and  Doses  of  most  Forms  of  Remedies  neces- 
sary for  private  Families.  The  Third  Edition. — With 
a  Preface  by  Mr.  John  Bartram,  Botanist  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  his  Notes  throughout  the  Work,  shewing  the 
Places  where  many  of  the  described  Plants  are  to  be 
found  in  these  Parts  of  America,  their  Differences  in 
Name,  Appearance  and  Virtue,  from  those  of  the  same 
Kind  in  Europe;  and  an  Appendix,  containing  a  De- 
scription of  a  Number  of  Plants  peculiar  to  America, 
their  Uses,  Virtues,  &c." 

1752.  In  this  year  there  was  published  at  Boston  a 
"  Sermon  before  the  President,  &c,  of  the  Hospital  for 
the  Small  Pox,  and  for  Inoculation,  March  5,  1752,"  by 
the  Rev.  Isaac  Maddox. 

Nathaniel  Williams  published  in  Boston  "  The  Method 
of  Practice  in  the  Small  Pox;  with  Observations  on  the 
Way  of  Inoculation." 

1753.  Dr.  John  Lining  published  his  famous  "  His- 
tory of  the  Yellow  Fever."  It  was  published  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  and  is  the  first  medical  publication 
in  the  Southern  States. 

In  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette  for  February  20  of  this 
year  and  in  subsequent  numbers  there  were  advertised 
"  Proposals  for  printing  by  Subscription,  Lectures  on  the 
most  important  Branches  of  Physick;  Calculated  for 
Students   in  that  Science.     Wherein  a   Theory  is  laid 


442  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

down,  and  a  Practice  established  on  rational  Principles, 
as  well  as  from  Experience,  and  a  just  Observation  of 
Facts,  founded  on  the  Histories  of  the  several  Diseases. 
The  whole  adapted  to  the  Climate  of  North  America. 
To  be  in  2  vols.  8vo,  containing  upwards  of  400  pages 
each." 

1754.  Dr.  John  Fothergill's  "  Life  and  Travels  in  the 
Work  of  the  Ministry"  was  reprinted  in  Philadelphia. 

Benjamin  Franklin  wrote  and  printed  "  Some  Account 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital ;  from  its  First  Rise,  to  the 
Beginning  of  the  Fifth  Month,  called  May,  1754."  This 
little  book  was  written  for  circulation  through  the  colo- 
nies and  in  Great  Britain  in  order  to  procure  subscrip- 
tions to  the  Hospital,  which  had  been  started  in  1751  and 
was  on  the  point  of  moving  to  a  new  site,  which  it  has 
occupied  ever  since. 

1756.  In  this  year  smallpox  was  epidemic  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  Dr.  Laughlin  Macleane  published  "  An  Essay 
on  the  Expediency  of  Inoculation,  and  the  Season  most 
proper  for  it.  Humbly  inscribed  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Philadelphia."  There  is  an  interesting  account  of  this 
Dr.  Macleane  in  Graydon's  Memoirs.  He  had  studied 
medicine  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  knew  Oliver  Gold- 
smith, and  had  come  to  America  as  a  surgeon  in  the 
British  army.  He  left  the  army  and  had  a  drug-store 
in  Second  Street  near  High,  with  a  "  Golden  Pestle"  as 
the  sign.  He  went  back  to  Edinburgh,  became  a  member 
of  Parliament,  and  was  then  appointed  collector  of  the 
port  of  Philadelphia.  He  soon  left  America,  however, 
and  again  returned  to  England,  from  whence  he  went  out 
to  India,  and  served  Warren  Hastings  in  a  confidential 
capacity. 

1760.  In  Boston  was  published  "  Small  Pox,  Direc- 
tions concerning  Inoculation."     (A  small  i2mo.) 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  443 

In  this  year  in  Philadelphia  there  was  published  "  The 
Case  of  Mr.  T.[homas]  L.  [awrence]  with  regard  to  the 
Method  pursued  therein  by  J.  [ohn]  K.  [earsley].  Senior, 
Surgeon,  with  the  uncommon  Treatment  the  said  J.  K. 
hath  met  with,  in  his  Procedure  therein."  I  cannot  find 
out  what  this  had  reference  to.  It  is  probably  some 
ancient  piece  of  scandal,  which  it  is  just  as  well  should 
be  forgotten. 

1 76 1.  Dr.  Sylvester  Gardiner,  a  celebrated  physician, 
who  in  the  War  for  Independence  was  a  Tory,  and  had 
his  goods  seized  by  Dr.  John  Morgan  for  the  benefit  of 
the  patriots,  issued  a  "  Proposal  to  Build  an  Inoculating 
Hospital  for  Small  Pox  at  Boston  —  Addressed  to  the 
Freeholders,  and  other  Inhabitants  of  that  Town,  March, 
1761. 

Benjamin  Grosvenor  published  at  Boston  "  Health ; 
An  Essay  on  its  Nature,  Value,  Uncertainty,  Preserva- 
tion, and  Best  Improvement."  This  was  the  third  edi- 
tion. 

In  Philadelphia,  Benjamin  Franklin  published  a  second 
edition  of  his  "  Account  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital," 
bringing  it  down  to  May,  1761. 

1763.  At  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  was  issued 
"  The  Plague  in  London.  The  Dreadful  Visitation ;  in 
a  short  Account  of  its  Progress  and  Effects  in  the  year 
1665,  &c."     (i2mo,  16  pp.) 

1764.  In  this  year  Dr.  Alexander  Garden,  of  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  published  "An  Account  of  the  Medi- 
cal Properties  of  Pink-Root."  Dr.  Garden  was  a  Scotch- 
man, who  had  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen.  In 
1774  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  The  well-known  plant  Gardenia  was  named  in 
honor  of  him  by  Linnaeus,  the  famous  Swedish  botanist. 
He  had  a  consumptive  tendency,  and  during  the  latter 


444  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

part  of  his  life  he  travelled  much  through  Europe  in 
search  of  health.  In  his  travels  he  met  many  famous 
scientists,  who  everywhere  hailed  him  with  cordiality,  his 
botanical  and  philosophical  researches  having  given  him 
a  world-wide  reputation.  He  died  in  London  in  1792, 
aged  about  sixty-four  years. 

1765.  Dr.  Cadwallader  Golden  published  a  "Treatise 
on  Wounds  and  Fevers."  This  book  was  long  regarded 
as  a  standard  authority  in  this  country.  It  is  continually 
referred  to  and  quoted  by  medical  authors. 

Dr.  John  Jones  published  at  New  York,  about  this  year 
(1765),  a  treatise  entitled  "Observations  on  Wounds." 
This  book  I  have  no  information  concernmg  except  the 
bare  statement  that  it  was  published,  made  by  Thomas 
in  his  "  History  of  Printing  in  North  America." 

In  this  year  the  famous  John  Morgan  published  "A 
Discourse  Upon  the  Institution  of  Medical  Schools  in 
America ;  Delivered  at  a  Public  Anniversary  Commence- 
ment, held  in  the  College  of  Philadelphia  May  30  and 
31,  1765.  With  a  Preface  Containing,  amongst  other 
things,  The  Author's  Apology  for  attempting  to  intro- 
duce the  regular  mode  of  practising  Physic  in  Philadel- 
phia; By  John  Morgan,  M.D. ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  at  London ;  Correspondent  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Surgery  at  Paris;  Member  of  the  Arcadian  Belles 
Lettres  Society  at  Rome;  Licentiate  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  in  London  and  in  Edinburgh;  and 
Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine  in 
the  College  of  Philadelphia,  Philadelphia.  Printed  and 
sold  by  William  Bradford,  at  the  corner  of  Market  and 
Front  Streets,  1765."  To  Dr.  Morgan  has  been  justly 
given  the  title  of  Founder  of  American  Medicine.  In  this 
address  he  tells  of  the  founding  of  the  medical  school  of 
what  is  now  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  445 

Dr.  Benjamin  Church  published  an  "  Elegy  upon  the 
Times,"  a  patriotic  complaint  of  the  miseries  suffered  by 
the  Americans.  Dr.  Church  was  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  probably  the  best-known  medical  man  in  New 
England.  He  was  appointed  to  the  head  of  the  medical 
department  of  the  Continental  army,  but  was  soon  after 
caught  in  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  English 
and  dismissed.  He  wrote  many  pieces  both  in  poetry 
and  prose. 

1766.  Dr.  Church  published  an  "  Elegy  on  the  Death 
of  Dr.  Jonathan  Mayhew." 

1767.  In  this  year  there  was  a  famous  suit  between 
Dr.  Sylvester  Gardiner,  of  Boston,  and  James  Flagg,  and 
the  following  list  of  publications  bearing  upon  it  were 
issued : 

"  Dr.  Gardiner  versus  James  Flagg,  Merchant." 

"Address  to  the  Public"  (in  answer  to  the  above). 

"  Dr.  Gardiner's  Statement  in  Relation  to  the  Case 
between  him  and  James  Flagg." 

"  Short  Vindication  of  the  Conduct  of  the  Referees  in 
the  Case  of  Gardiner  vs.  Flagg." 

"A  Full  Answer  to  the  Pamphlet  entitled  'A  Short 
Vindication  of  the  Referees.'  " 

"  Letter  to  Messrs.  Edward  Payne  and  Henderson 
Inches  (Referees)." 

"  Letters  to  the  Public,"  etc. 

In  the  subsequent  year  was  published  "  Gardiner,  Syl- 
vester, vs.  Flagg,  James.  Two  Pamphlets  relating  to  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Referees  in  the  Case." 

There  was  published  at  Philadelphia  in  this  year  "An 
Essay  on  Inoculation  for  the  Small  Pox.  Wherein  the 
Nature  of  the  Disease  is  explained,  the  various  Methods 
of  Preparation  that  have  been  practised  in  America  are 
critically  examined,  and  that  which  the  Author  has  found, 


446  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

from  his  own  experience,  to  be  most  successful,  is  clearly 
laid  down.  With  an  Appendix  containing  a  Chirurgical 
Examination  of  Mr.  Sutton's  Medicines.  By  Thomas 
Ruston,  M.D." 

1768.  In  this  year  Lionel  Chalmers  published  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  "An  Essay  on  Fevers." 
Dr.  Chalmers  after  graduating  from  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  came  to  America  and  settled  in  South  Caro- 
lina. In  1754  he  communicated  a  paper  on  "Opisthot- 
onus and  Tetanus"  to  the  Medical  Society  in  London 
(England),  which  was  published  in  the  first  volume  of 
Transactions  put  forth  by  the  Society.  In  1776  he  pub- 
lished in  London  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Weather  and  Dis- 
eases of  South  Carolina." 

1769.  Dr.  John  Mitchell  in  this  year  published  his 
book  on  the  "  Principles  of  Botany."  He  was  an  Eng- 
lishman, who  came  to  America  in  1700,  settling  in 
Virginia.  In  1743  he  published  in  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions  of  London"  an  "  Essay  on  the  Causes  of 
the  Different  Colours  of  People  of  Different  Climates." 
He  wrote  an  excellent  account  of  the  "  Yellow  Fever  in 
Virginia  in  1741  and  1742,"  but  it  was  not  published  in 
his  lifetime.  At  his  death  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  and  he  gave  it  to  Dr.  Rush,  who  in  turn 
gave  it  to  Dr.  Hosack,  by  whom  it  was  finally  published 
in  the  American  Medical  and  Philosophical  Register  for 
1814,  vol.  iv. 

In  1769  was  published  an  address  entitled  "An  Histori- 
cal Inquiry  into  the  Ancient  and  Present  State  of  Medi- 
cine," by  Dr.  Peter  Middleton.  It  was  delivered  at  the 
opening  of  the  Medical  School  of  New  York  in  that  year. 
Dr.  Middleton  was  a  Scotchman,  who  came  to  America 
and  practised  medicine  in  the  city  of  New  York.  In 
1750  he  and  Dr.  John  Bard  injected  a  body  and  dissected 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  447 

it.  He  was  the  first  professor  of  Physiology  and  Pa- 
thology in  the  Medical  College  of  New  York.  In  the 
ninth  volume  of  the  Medical  Repository  there  is  published 
a  letter  by  him  to  Dr.  Richard  Bayley  on  Croup.  Dr. 
Middleton  died  in  1781. 

'  Dr.  Samuel  Bard  delivered  an  address  at  the  Com- 
mencement exercises  of  King's  College,  New  York,  in 
1769,  which  was  published  in  the  same  year,  under  the 
title  of  "A  Discourse  on  the  Duties  of  a  Physician."  In 
this  address  he  urged  strongly  the  necessity  of  founding 
a  hospital  in  the  city.  Dr.  Bard  was  a  native  of  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  was  born  in  1742.  His  father  was  the 
well-known  Dr.  John  Bard. 

In  1769  there  was  published  in  New  York  the  thir- 
teenth edition  of  a  work  entitled  "  Primitive  Physick, 
or  an  easy  and  natural  Method  of  curing  most  Diseases," 
by  Dr.  John  Wesley. 

The  Bradfords  printed  in  this  year  "  Observations  on 
the  Angina  Maligna;  or  the  Putrid  and  Ulcerous  Sore 
Throat,  with  a  Method  of  Treating  it.  By  a  Lover  of 
Pennsylvania."  The  author  is  supposed  to  have  been 
Dr.  Benjamin  Rush.  Hildeburn'*  quotes  W.  F.  Atlee  as 
saying  that  the  treatment  of  this  disease,  which  we  now 
term  diphtheria,  "  is  admirable.  The  treatment  ordered 
is  very  remarkable,  inasmuch  as  it  denounces  bleeding 
in  all  cases  of  the  disease,  and  is  the  one  generally  adopted 
nowadays." 

Dr.  Jacob  Ogden,  who  was  born  in  New  Jersey,  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  College  and  practised  medicine  at  Ja- 
maica, Long  Island,  wrote  a  letter  on  the  "  Malignant 
Sore  Throat  Distemper,"  addressed  to  Mr.  Hugh  Gaine. 
It  was  printed  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Medical  Reposi- 

*  Issues  of  the  Press  in  Pennsylvania. 


448  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

tory  of  New  York  some  years  after  it  was  written.  This 
letter  was  dated  October  28,  1 769,  and  he  wrote  a  second 
on  the  same  subject  September  14,  1774. 

John  Kearsley,  Jr.,  published  this  year  "  A  Narrative  of 
many  Facts,  relating  to  the  late  disputed  will  of  Samuel 
Flower,  Esq.,  published  with  a  view  to  defend  an  In- 
jured Reputation,  and  to  remove  Ill-Grounded  Prejudices, 
by  Dr.  John  Kearsley,  Junr." 

Kearsley  also  published  at  this  time,  in  the  Gentleman's 
Magazine  of  London,  a  paper  on  "  Angina  Maligna." 

1 771.  Dr.  Samuel  Bard  published  an  "  Enquiry  into 
the  Nature,  Cause  and  Cure  of  Angina  Suffocation  or 
Sore  Throat  Distemper." 

William  Cadagan  published  "A  Dissertation  on  the 
Gout,  and  all  Chronic  Diseases,  jointly  considered  as  pro- 
ceeding from  the  same  Causes.  What  those  Causes  are. 
And  a  Rational  and  Natural  Method  of  Cure." 

James  Tilton  published  this  year  his  thesis  in  Latin, 
with  the  title  "  Dissertatio  Medico  inaugurales  Quam 
Sub  Moderamine  Viri  admodum  reverendi  Gulielmi 
Smith,  S.T.D.  Collegii  et  Academae  Philadelphiensis 
Prsefacti,  Ex  Curatorum  Auctoritate  perillustrium  Sed 
non  Amplissimse  Collegii  et  Academise  Facultatis  decreto. 
Deo  Optimo  maximo  ammente,  Pro  Gradu  Doctoris,  Sum- 
misque  in  Medicina  Honoribus  et  Privilegio  rite  at  legi- 
time consequendio  Eruditorum  Examine  Subjectam  sus- 
tinuit  Jacobus  Tilton,  M.B.    Doveribus  apud  Delaware." 

S.  A.  Tissot  published  "Advice  to  People  Respecting 
their  Health." 

T.  Dimsdale  wrote  an  article  entitled  "  The  Present 
Method  of  Inoculating  for  the  Small  Pox.  To  which 
are  added  some  Experiments  instituted  with  a  View  to 
discover  the  Effects  of  a  similar  Treatment  in  the  Natu- 
ral Pox." 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  449 

1772.  In  this  year  was  published  in  Boston  the  tenth 
edition  of  WilHam  Cadogan's  "  Essay  on  the  Nursing  and 
Management  of  Children."  There  was  another  edition 
also  printed  at  Philadelphia. 

Benjamin  Rush  published  "  Sermons  to  Gentlemen  on 
Temperance  and  Exercise." 

There  was  also  published  "A  Funeral  Eulogium  Sacred 
to  the  Memory  of  the  late  Reverend  William  Ramsay,  by 
Jonathan  Elmer,  M.D." 

1773.  Dr.  Benjamin  Church  delivered  the  "Annual 
Oration  in  Commemoration  of  the  Boston  Massacre" 
on  March  5.  Thacher  says  it  "discovers  a  rich  fancy; 
it  is  certainly  one  of  the  very  best  of  the  '  Boston  Ora- 
tions.' " 

There  was  reprinted  in  this  year  "  The  History  of  In- 
oculation, by  M.  de  La  Condamine,"  which  had  been  first 
published  in  1754. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Rush  published  "  Experiments  and  Ob- 
servations on  the  Mineral  Waters  of  Philadelphia,  Abing- 
ton  and  Bristol,  Pa.  Read  June  18,  1773,  before  the 
American  Philosophical  Society — Philadelphia."  Hilde- 
burn  ^  says, — 

"  The  waters  of  Abington  and  Bath,  near  Bristol,  were  much 
resorted  to  till  near  the  middle  of  the  present  century.  The  fame 
of  the  supposed  '  Philadelphia  Mineral  Water,'  on  the  disagreeable 
taste  and  fetid  smell  of  which  Dr.  Rush  has  much  to  say,  was  short- 
lived. The  true  causes  of  these  qualities  being  discovered  to  arise 
not  from  mineral  sources,  but  from  one  which  put  an  immediate 
stop  to  the  use  of  the  water,  and  made  its  advocates  and  their  dis- 
ciples a  subject  of  ridicule." 

Dr.  Rush  also  published  "  An  Address  to  the  Inhabi- 
tants of  the  British  Settlements  on  the  Slavery  of  Negroes 
in  America  (2d  Ed.).     To  which  is  added  a  Vindication 

°  Issues  of  the  Press  in  Pennsylvania. 
29 


450  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

of  the  Address  in  Answer  to  a  Pamphlet  entitled  '  Slavery 
not  forbidden  in  Scripture;  or  a  Defence  of  the  West 
Indian  Planters.'     By  a  Pennsylvanian." 

1774.  In  this  year  was  published  a  work  which  was 
more  used  than  any  other  book  of  its  kind  ever  has  been 
or  ever  will  be, — viz.,  "Domestic  Medicine;  or  the 
Family  Physician ;  Being  an  Attempt  to  render  the  Medi- 
cal Art  more  generally  useful  by  shewing  people  what  Is 
in  their  own  power  both  with  respect  to  the  Prevention 
and  Cure  of  Diseases.  Chiefly  Calculated  to  recommend 
a  proper  attention  to  Regimen  and  Simple  Medicines,  By 
William  Buchan,  M.D.,  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physi- 
cians, Edinburgh.  The  2nd  American  Edition  with  con- 
siderable Additions  by  the  Author." 

Benjamin  Rush  published  "An  Oration  Delivered 
February  4,  1774,  before  the  American  Philosophical 
Society,  held  at  Philadelphia.  Containing  an  Enquiry 
into  the  Natural  History  of  Medicine  among  the  Indians 
in  North  America,  and  a  comparative  View  of  their  Dis- 
eases and  Remedies,  with  those  of  civilized  Nations. 
Together  with  an  Appendix  containing  Proofs  and  Illus- 
trations." 

1775.  In  this  year  Robert  Bell,  a  publisher  of  Phila- 
delphia, issued  "  Proposals  for  Printing  by  Subscription, 
Lectures  on  the  Duties  and  Qualifications  of  a  Physician 
with  the  Elements  of  the  Practice  of  Physic.  By  John 
Gregory,  M.D."  The  same  publisher  also  printed  "  Lec- 
tures on  the  Materia  Medica,  as  delivered  by  William  Cul- 
len,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  Now  Published  by  Permission  of  the  Author, 
and  with  many  Corrections  from  the  Collation  of  dif- 
ferent Manuscripts  by  the  Editors."  This  work  went 
through  subsequent  editions,  and  Cullen's  Practice  was 
published  by  Bell  in  1781. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  451 

John  Hill  published  at  Philadelphia  ''  The  Old  Man's 
Guide  to  Health  and  Longer  Life;  with  Rules  for  Diet, 
Exercise,  and  Physic." 

A  most  important  work  appeared  this  year,  which 
served  as  a  text-book  for  the  military  surgeons  in  the 
ensuing  war.  This  was  "  Plain,  Concise,  and  Practical 
Remarks  on  the  Treatment  of  Wounds  and  Fractures," 
by  John  Jones,  M.D.  It  was  intended  as  a  guide  on 
military  surgery,  and  was  a  most  excellent  book  for  its 
purpose.  Three  editions  were  published  of  it ;  the  second 
in  1776  and  the  third  in  1795.  Dr.  Jones  had  studied 
medicine  under  Dr.  Thomas  Cadwalader,  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  his  book  is  dedicated  to  him  in  terms  of  warm 
admiration.  After  completing  his  studies  with  Dr.  Cad- 
walader Dr.  Jones  went  abroad,  and  pursued  his  medical 
studies  in  London,  Edinburgh,  Leyden,  and  France.  He 
received  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  the  University  of 
Rheims.  He  performed  the  first  lithotomy  ever  done  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  was  Professor  of  Surgery  in 
the  Medical  School  of  New  York.  In  1780  he  removed 
to  Philadelphia,  and  succeeded  to  Dr.  John  Redman's 
place  as  one  of  the  physicians  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hos- 
pital. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians of  Philadelphia  and  its  first  vice-president.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  attended  that 
great  man  in  his  last  illness,  afterwards  publishing  a 
very  interesting  account  of  the  philosopher's  last  hours. 
Dr.  Jones  died  in  June,  1791,  in  the  sixty-third  year  of 
his  age. 


452  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 


CHAPTER    X. 

MEDICAL    LEGISLATION    IN    THE    COLONIES. 

The  laws  passed  by  the  various  colonial  Legislatures 
bearing  upon  the  practice  of  medicine  have  been  tran- 
scribed from  the  archives  of  the  different  States  by 
Toner/  Wickes,^  and  S.  A.  Green.^  To  those  which  are 
given  in  their  pages  I  have  been  able  to  add  a  few,  but 
the  field  is  well  covered  by  their  researches. 

One  of  the  earliest  laws  passed  by  any  of  the  colonies 
in  relation  to  medical  men  is  the  act  passed  by  Virginia 
in  1639,  which  was  revised  at  the  session  of  the  Assembly 
in  1645-46 : 

"  Whereas  by  the  ninth  act  of  Assembly,  held  the  21st  of  October, 
1639,  consideration  being  had  and  taken  of  the  immoderate  and 
excessive  rates  and  prices  exacted  by  practitioners  in  physick  and 
chirurgery  and  the  complaints  made  to  the  Assembly  of  the  bad 
consequence  thereof,  it  so  happening  through  the  said  intollerable 
exactions  that  the  hearts  of  divers  masters  were  hardened  rather  to 
suffer  their  servants  to  perish  for  want  of  fit  means  and  applications 
than  by  seeking  relief  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  griping  and  avari- 
cious men ;  be  apprehended  by  such  masters,  who  were  more  swayed 
by  politick  respects  than  Xian  [Christian]  duty  or  charity,  that  it 
was  more  gainful!  and  saving  way  to  stand  to  the  hazard  of  their 
servants  than  to  entertain  the  certain  charge  of  a  physitian  or 
chirurgeon,  whose  demands  for  the  most  parte  exceed  the  purchase 
of  the  patient.  It  was  therefore  enacted  for  the  better  redress  of 
the  like  abuses  thereafter,  untill  some  fitter  course  should  be  ad- 
vised on,  for  the  regulating  physitians  and  chirurgeons  within  the 

^  Contributions  to  the  Annals  of  Medical  Progress. 
^  History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey. 

^  Centennial  Address  on  the  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachu- 
setts. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  453 

colony,  that  it  should  be  lawful  and  free  for  any  person  or  persons 
in  such  cases  where  they  should  conceive  the  acco't  of  physitian  or 
chirurgeon  to  be  unreasonable,  either  for  his  pains  or  for  his  druggs 
or  medicines,  to  arrest  the  said  physitian  or  chirurgeon  either  to  the 
quarter-court,  or  county-court  where  they  inhabitt,  where  the  said 
physitian  should  declare  upon  oath  the  true  value,  worth,  and  quan- 
tity of  his  druggs  and  medicines  administered  to  or  for  the  use  of 
pit.  [patient].  Whereupon  the  court  where  the  matter  was  tryed 
was  to  adjudge  and  allow  to  the  said  physitian  or  chirurgeon  such 
satisfaction  and  reward  as  they  in  their  discretions  should  think 
fitt.  And  it  was  further  ordered,  that  when  it  should  be  sufficiently 
proved  in  any  of  the  said  courts  that  a  physitian  or  chirurgeon  had 
neglected  his  patient,  or  that  he  had  refused,  being  thereunto  re- 
quired, his  helpe  or  assistance  to  any  person  or  persons  in  sickness 
or  extremity,  that  the  said  physitian  or  chirurgeon  should  be  cen- 
sured by  the  said  court  for  such  his  neglect  or  refusal,  which  said  act 
and  every  clause  therein  mentioned  and  repeated,  this  present  Grand 
Assembly  to  all  intents  and  purposes  doth  revive,  ratifie,  allow,  and 
confirme,  with  this  only  exception  that  pits  [patients]  shall  have 
their  remedy  at  the  county  courts  respectively,  unless  in  case  of 
appeal." 

The  same  State  enacted  three  more  laws  bearing  on  the 
practice  of  medicine  during  the  seventeenth  century :  ( i ) 
"An  Act  regulating  Chirurgeons  accounts,"  in  1662; 
(2)  "  An  Act  allowing  Chirurgeons  accounts  to  be 
pleaded  after  decease  of  the  party,"  1662;  (3)  "An 
Act  relating  to  Physicians  and  Chirurgeons  accounts," 
1691. 

In  1722  the  State  of  Virginia  passed  an  "  Act  to  oblige 
Ships  coming  from  places  infected  with  the  plague  to 
perform  their  quarantine." 

In  1736  the  Virginia  Assembly  passed  "  An  Act  regu- 
lating the  fees  and  accounts  of  the  practicers  in  physic." 

"  (I)  Whereas  the  practice  of  physic  in  this  colony  is  most  com- 
monly taken  up  and  followed  by  surgeons,  apothecaries,  or  such  as 
have  only  served  apprenticeships  to  those  trades,  who  often  prove 
very  unskillful  in  the  art  of  a  physician;  and  yet  do  demand  ex- 
cessive fees  and  exact  unreasonable  prices  for  their  medicines  which 


454         THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

they  administer,  and  do  too  often,  for  the  sake  of  making  up  long 
and  expensive  bills,  load  their  patients  with  greater  quantities 
thereof,  than  are  necessary  or  useful,  concealing  all  the  composi- 
tions, as  well  to  prevent  the  discovery  of  their  practice,  as  of  the 
true  value  of  what  they  administer;  which  is  become  a  grievance, 
dangerous  and  intolerable,  as  well  to  the  poorer  sort  of  people,  as 
others,  &  doth  require  the  most  effectual  remedy  that  the  nature 
of  the  thing  will  admit. 

"  (II)  Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  Coun- 
cil, and  Burgesses  of  the  present  General  Assembly,  and  it  is  hereby 
enacted,  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  That  from  and  after  the 
passing  of  this  Act,  no  practicer  in  physic,  in  any  action  or  suit 
whatsoever,  hereafter  to  be  commenced  in  any  court  of  record  in 
this  Colony,  shall  recover,  for  visiting  any  sick  person,  more  than 
the  rates  hereafter  mentioned :    that  is  to  say — 

"  Surgeons  and  apothecaries  who  have  served  an  apprenticeship 
to  those  trades,  shall  be  allowed : 

£         s.         d. 
For  every  visit  and  prescription  in  town,  or  within 

five   miles o  5        oo 

For  every  mile  above  five  and  under  ten o  i        oo 

For  every  visit  of  ten  miles o        lo        oo 

For  every  mile  above  ten o        oo        oO 

With  an  allowance  of  all  ferriage  in  their  journeys. 

To  surgeons,  for  a  simple  fracture  and  cure  thereof    2        oo        oo 

For  a  compound  fracture  and  cure  thereof 4        00        00 

But  those  persons  who  have  studied  physic  in  any 
university,  and  taken  any  degree  therein,  shall 
be  allowed  for  every  visit  and  prescription  in 

town  or  within  five  miles 0        10        00 

If  above  five  miles,  for  every  mile  more  under  ten . .     o  i        00 

For  a  visit,  if  not  above  ten  miles i        00        00 

And  for  every  mile  above  ten 0  i        00 

"  (III)  And  to  the  end  the  true  value  of  the  medicine  adminis- 
tered by  any  practicer  in  physic,  may  be  better  known,  and  judged 
of,  Be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid.  That  whenever 
any  pills,  bolus,  potion,  draught,  electuary,  decoction,  or  any  medi- 
cine, in  any  form  whatsoever,  shall  be  administered  to  any  sick 
person,  the  person  administering  the  same  shall,  at  the  same  time, 
deliver  in  his  bill,  expressing  every  particular  thing  made  up 
therein ;  or  if  the  medicine  administered  be  a  simple,  or  compound, 
directed  in  the  dispensatories,  the  true  name  thereof  shall  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  same  bill,  together  with  the  quantities  and  prices,  in 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  455 

both  cases.  And  in  failure  thereof,  such  practicer,  or  any  apothe- 
cary, making  up  the  prescription  of  another,  shall  be  nonsuited,  in 
any  action  or  suit  hereafter  commenced,  which  shall  be  grounded 
upon  such  bill  or  bills :  Nor  shall  any  book,  or  account,  of  any 
practicer  in  physic,  or  any  apothecary,  be  permitted  to  be  given  in 
evidence,  before  a  court ;  unless  the  article  therein  contained,  be 
charged  according  to  the  direction  of  this  act. 

"  (IV)  And  be  it  further  enacted,  by  the  authority  aforesaid, 
that  this  act  shall  continue  and  be  in  force,  for  and  during  two 
years,  next  after  the  passage  thereof  and  from  thence  to  the  end 
of  the  next  session  of  assembly."  * 

In  1769  Virginia  passed  an  "  Act  to  regulate  the  inocu- 
lation of  small  pox  within  the  colony."  This  act  was 
amended  in  1777. 

In  1649  ^^  attempt  was  made  to  regulate  the  practice 
of  medicine  in  Massachusetts  by  the  passage  of  the  fol- 
lowing law :  ^ 

"  Chirurgeons,    Midwives,    Physitians 
"  Forasmuch  as  the  Law  of  God  allowes  no  man  to  impaire  the 
Life,  or  Limbs  of  any  Person,  but  in  a  judicial  way; 

"  It  is  therefore  Ordered,  That  no  person  or  persons  whatsoever, 
imployed  at  any  time  about  the  bodye  of  men,  women,  or  children, 
for  preservation  of  life,  or  health;  as  Chirurgeons,  Midwives, 
Physitians  or  others,  presume  to  exercise,  or  put  forth  any  act 
contrary  to  the  known  approved  Rules  of  Art,  in  each  Mystery  and 
occupation,  nor  exercise  any  force,  violence  or  cruelty  upon,  or 
towards  the  body  of  any,  whether  young  or  old,  (no  not  in  the  most 
difficult  cases)  without  the  advice  and  consent  of  such  as  are  skill- 
ful in  the  same  Art,  (if  such  may  be  had)  or  at  least  some  of  the 
wisest  and  gravest  then  present,  and  consent  of  the  patient  or 
patients  if  they  be  mentis  compotes,  much  less  contrary  to  such 
advice  and  consent ;  upon  such  severe  punishment  as  the  nature  of 
the  fact  may  deserve,  which  Law  nevertheless,  is  not  intended  to 
discourage  any   from  all   lawfull   use  of  their  skill,  but  rather  to 

*  Transcribed  by  Toner  in  his  "  Contributions  to  the  Annals  of 
Medical  Progress,"  from  Henning's  Statutes. 

*  Ancient  Charters  and  Laws  of  Massachusetts,  p.  76.  Also 
quoted  by  Green,  "  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts,"  and  by 
Toner,  "  Annals  of  Medical  Progress." 


456  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

incourage  and  direct  them  in  the  right  use  thereof,  and  inhibit  and 
restreine  the  presumptuous  arrogancy  of  such  as  through  presidence 
of  their  own  skill,  or  any  other  sinister  respects,  dare  boldly  attempt 
to  exercise  any  violence  upon  or  towards  the  bodyes  of  young  or 
old,  one  or  other,  to  the  prejudice  or  hazard  of  the  life  or  limbe 
of  man,  woman,  or  child." 

Green  ^  quotes  a  petition,  which  is  in  the  Massachusetts 
Archives,  assigned  to  the  date  1653,  and  is  of  much  in- 
terest.   It  is  as  follows : 

"  To  THE  Honored  Court. 

"  Whereas  there  be  many  Chirurgions  that  came  over  in  the  ships 
into  this  Bay,  &  here  practise  both  physick  and  Chirurgery  to  the 
hazarding  of  the  lives  &  limbes  of  some,  &  the  detriment  of  many, 
being  unskilled  in  those  Arts.  May  it  please  this  Honored  Court 
to  take  into  Consideration  whether  such  ought  not  to  be  restrained, 
&  that  first  they  may  be  exercised  by  the  skilfuU  &  authorised 
Phisitians  &  Chirurgions  in  this  towne,  &  then  being  found  skilful!, 
&  approved  by  them  may  by  some  Magistrates  be  licensed  to  prac- 
tise the  time  they  are  resident  here,  but  if  any  one  shall  presume 
on  shore  to  practise  wthout  liberty  granted,  that  some  fine  may  be 
imposed  vpon  him  for  every  such  default  according  to  your  dis- 
cretion." 

In  1699  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  passed 
"  An  Act  to  prevent  the  spread  of  infectious  sickness." 
In  1 70 1  it  passed  an  act  "  authorizing  the  selectmen  to 
provide  for  those  sick  with  contagious  diseases."  Massa- 
chusetts enacted  more  laws  to  prevent  the  spread  of  con- 
tagious diseases  than  any  other  colony,  as  the  following 
list  will  show. 

In  the  summer  of  171 6  a  committee  was  appointed  by 
the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  to  select  a  site  for 
an  isolation  hospital  for  quarantine  purposes.  It  was 
proposed  to  locate  it  on  Spectacle,  or  else  on  Squantum 
Island,  but  the  owner  of  the  former  asked  an  exorbitant 
price  for  his  island,  and  the  towns  of  Dorchester  and 

*  History  of  Medicine  in  Massachusetts. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  457 

Braintree  protested  so  vigorously  against  the  use  of 
Squantum  for  the  purpose  that  it,  too,  had  to  be  aban- 
doned. The  next  year,  however.  Spectacle  Island  was 
secured  and  a  hospital  erected  on  it,  which  served  its  pur- 
pose until  1737,  when  the  location  was  changed  to  Rains- 
ford  Island,  where  it  continued  until  1847,  when  it  was 
transferred  to  Deer  Island,  from  whence,  in  1867,  it  was 
transferred  to  Gallop's  Island,  where  it  continues. 

In  1730  the  General  Court  passed  "  An  Act  empower- 
ing courts  to  adjourn  and  remove  from  towns  appointed 
by  law  for  holding  courts,  in  case  of  sickness  by  the 
smallpox."  In  1731  an  act  was  passed  "to  prevent  per- 
sons concealing  the  smallpox,  and  requiring  a  red  cloth 
to  be  hung  out  in  all  infected  places." 

In  1742  was  passed  "  An  Act  to  prevent  the  spreading 
of  the  smallpox,  and  other  infectious  diseases  and  con- 
cealing the  same." 

In  1743  an  act  was  passed  "  regulating  the  hospital  on 
Rainsford  Island,  and  further  providing  in  case  of  infec- 
tious sickness." 

In  1750  an  act  was  passed  "  to  regulate  the  importation 
of  Germans  and  other  passengers,  coming  to  settle  in  this 
Province,  providing  that  sufficient  provisions  and  room 
be  given  them  to  prevent  the  contraction  of  disease." 

In  1758  a  supplementary  quarantine  act  was  passed, 
enabling  magistrates  to  seclude  those  suffering  from  con- 
tagious diseases  on  Rainsford  Island. 

The  above  shows  certainly  a  very  earnest  desire  to  con- 
fine contagious  diseases  within  as  close  limits  as  possible. 

In  some  letters  of  John  Hancock's^  recently  published 
there  is  one  containing  a  reference  to  the  annoyance  he 
experienced  in  consequence  of  the  quarantine  enforced 

^John  Hancock.     His  Book,  by  Abram  English  Brown. 


458  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

on  a  brig  consigned  to  him,  in  which  smallpox  had  de- 
veloped on  the  voyage  from  England.     He  says, — 

"  I  should  be  glad  the  masters  would  be  carefull,  who  they  take 
on  board  as  passengers,  for  this  misfortune  of  the  smallpox  on 
board  the  Brig,  was  wholly  owing  to  a  Negro  Servant  of  Mr.  Wil- 
liams, who  had  just  recovered  of  that  disorder;  this  will  create 
us  an  Expence  of  £50.  stg." 

The  letter  is  dated  December  6,  1764. 

In  1 78 1  the  act  incorporating  the  Massachusetts  Medi- 
cal Society  was  passed. 

Toner  gives  the  following  list  of  laws  enacted  during 
the  colonial  period  in  Connecticut  relating  to  the  practice 
of  medicine :  "  An  Act  to  prevent  the  small-pox  being 
spread  in  this  colony  by  pedlars,  hawkers,  petty  chapmen," 
enacted  1722;  physicians  and  chirurgeons  to  be  exempt 
from  performing  military  duty,  enacted  in  the  bill  regu- 
lating the  militia  in  1722;  physicians  and  chirurgeons  to 
be  taxed  and  rated  as  others,  enacted  1 722 ;  an  act  amend- 
ing the  act  of  171 1,  enacted  1728;  an  act  providing  in 
all  cases  of  contagious  sickness,  enacted  1729;  an  act 
providing  in  case  of  infectious  diseases,  enacted  1732; 
an  act  additive  to  the  act  of  1729,  requiring  that  all  goods 
coming  from  infected  places  be  aired  before  exposure  for 
sale,  enacted  1752;  an  act  additive  to  the  foregoing  pro- 
viding for  vessels  coming  from  infected  parts,  enacted 
1756;  an  act  additive  to  the  same,  regulating  inoculation, 
enacted  1760;  an  act  additive  to  the  same  concerning 
inoculation,  enacted  1761;  an  act  reviving  the  original 
act  of  1729,  with  all  its  additives,  enacted  1769;  an 
act  for  the  suppression  of  mountebanks  (dealers  in  quack 
medicines),  enacted  1773. 

Toner  only  found  one  law  in  the  colonial  statutes  of 
Rhode  Island  which  is  of  interest  in  our  present  inquiry. 
It  was  "  An  act  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  small- 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  459 

pox  and  other  contagious  diseases  in  this  State."  It  was 
first  enacted  in  1743,  and  again  passed  in  revised  form  in 

1748. 

In  the  province  of  New  York  many  laws  were  enacted 
at  a  very  early  period  bearing  upon  the  practitioners  of 
medicine  and  surgery  within  its  limits. 

Toner  quotes  from  the  Dutch  Records  for  February  2, 
1652,  the  following  quaint  minute : 

"  On  the  petition  of  the  chirurgeons  of  New  Amsterdam  that  none 
but  they  alone  be  allowed  to  shave ;  the  director  and  council  under- 
stand that  shaving  alone  doth  not  appertain  exclusively  to  chirur- 
gery,  but  is  an  appendix  thereunto ;  that  no  man  can  be  prevented 
operating  on  himself,  nor  to  do  another  the  friendly  act,  provided 
it  be  through  courtesy,  and  not  for  gain  which  is  hereby  forbidden. 
It  was  then  further  ordered  that  ship-barbers  shall  not  be  allowed 
to  dress  any  wounds  nor  administer  any  potions  on  shore  without 
the  previous  knowledge  and  special  consent  of  the  petitioners  or 
at  best  of  Doctor  La  Montague." 

Dr.  Johannes  La  Montague  was  a  member  of  Governor 
Kieft's  Council,  and  a  man  of  great  eminence  and 
authority  in  the  affairs  of  the  province. 

In  December,  1657,  a  city  ordinance  was  passed  giving 
notice 

"  To  all  Chirurgeons  of  the  City  that  when  they  are  called  to  dress 
a  wound  they  shall  ask  the  patient  who  wounded  him  and  that  in- 
formation thereof  be  given  to  the  Schout"    (i.e.,  sheriff). 

In  1665  the  Duke  of  York  published  a  code  of  laws  by 
which  the  settlers  in  the  grant  made  to  him  the  previous 
year  should  be  governed.  This  grant  included  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  and  also  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Nan- 
tucket.   Among  these  laws  we  find  the  following : 

"Chirurgeons,  Midwives,  Physicians  —  That  no  person  or  per- 
sons whatever  employed  about  the  bodys  of  men,  women,  or  chil- 
dren for  the  preservation  of  life  or  health,  as  chirurgeons,  midwives, 
physicians,  or  others,  presume  to  put  forth  or  exercise  any  act 
contrary  to   the  known  approved   rule  of  art   in   each   mystery  or 


46o  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

occupation,  or  exercise  any  force,  violence,  or  cruelty  upon  or 
towards  the  body  of  any,  whether  young  or  old,  without  the  advice 
and  counsel  of  such  as  are  skilful  in  the  same  art,  (if  such  may  be 
had,)  or  at  least  of  some  of  the  wisest  and  gravest  then  present, 
and  consent  of  the  patient,  or  patients;  if  they  be  mentis  compotes, 
much  less  contrary  to  such  advice  and  consent,  upon  such  severe 
punishment  as  the  nature  of  the  fact  may  deserve;  which  law, 
nevertheless,  is  not  intended  to  discourage  any  from  all  lawful  use 
of  their  skill,  but  rather  to  encourage  and  direct  them  in  the  right 
use  thereof,  and  to  inhibit  and  restrain  the  presumptuous  arrogance 
of  such  as  through  confidence  of  their  own  skill  or  any  other  sinister 
respects,  dare  boldly  attempt  to  exercise  any  violence  upon  or 
towards  the  body  of  young  or  old,  one  or  other,  to  the  prejudice  or 
hazard  of  the  life  or  limb  of  man,  woman,  or  child." 

This  law  is  almost  exactly  the  same  as  that  enacted  in 
Massachusetts  in  1649. 

On  June  10,  1760,  the  General  Assembly  of  New  York 
passed  the  following  law  regulating  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine in  the  city  of  New  York : 

"  Whereas  many  ignorant  and  unskilful  persons  in  physick  and 
surgery,  in  order  to  gain  a  subsistence,  do  take  upon  themselves  to 
administer  physick  and  practice  surgery  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
to  the  endangering  of  the  lives  and  limbs  of  their  patients,  and  many 
poor  and  ignorant  persons  inhabiting  the  said  city,  who  have  been 
persuaded  to  become  their  patients,  have  been  great  sufferers  thereby; 
for  preventing  such  abuses  for  the  future — 

"  I.  Be  it  enacted  by  his  honor  the  lieutenant-governor,  the  coun- 
cil, and  the  general  assembly,  and  it  is  hereby  enacted  by  the 
authority  of  the  same,  That  from  and  after  the  publication  of  this 
act  no  one  whatsoever  shall  practice  as  a  physician  or  surgeon  in  the 
said  city  of  New  York  before  he  shall  first  have  been  examined  in 
physick  and  surgery,  and  approved  of  and  admitted  by  one  of  His 
Majesty's  council,  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  the  King's 
attorney-general,  and  the  mayor  of  the  city  of  New  York  for  the 
time  being,  or  by  any  three  or  more  of  them,  taking  to  their  assist- 
ance for  such  examinations  such  proper  person  or  persons  as  they 
in  their  discretion  shall  think  fit.  And  if  any  candidate,  after  due 
examination  of  his  learning  and  skill  in  physick  and  surgery  as 
aforesaid,  shall  be  approved  and  admitted  to  practice  as  a  physician 
and  surgeon,  or  both,  the  said  examiners,  or  any  three  or  more  of 
them,   shall   give,   under   their   hands   and   seals,   to   the  person   so 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  461 

admitted  as  aforesaid,  a  testimonial  of  his  examination  and  admis- 
sion, and  in  the  form  following,  to  wit : 

"  To  all  whom  these  presents  shall  come  or  may  concern: 
"  Know  ye,  that  we,  whose  names  are  hereunto  subscribed,  in 
pursuance  of  an  act  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  and  Council,  and  the 
General  Assembly,  made  and  published  at  New  York,  the  tenth  day 
of  June,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
sixty,  entitled  '  An  act  to  regulate  the  practice  of  physick  and  surgery 

in  the  city  of  New  York,'  have  duly  examined  physician   (or) 

surgeon,  or  physician  and  surgeon,  (as  the  case  may  be,)  and,  having 
approved  of  his  skill,  have  admitted  him  as  a  physician  (or)  surgeon, 
(or)  physician  and  surgeon,  to  practice  in  the  said  faculty  or  facul- 
ties throughout  this  province  of  New  York.  In  testimony  whereof 
we  have  affixed  our  seals  to  this  instrument,  at  New  York,  this  — 

day  of  ,  anno  Domini  one  thousand  . 

"  IL  And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid.  That 
if  any  person  shall  practise  in  the  city  of  New  York  as  a  physician 
or  surgeon,  or  both  as  a  physician  and  surgeon,  without  such  testi- 
monial as  aforesaid,  he  shall,  for  every  such  offence,  forfeit  the  sum 
of  five  pounds,  one-half  thereof  to  the  use  of  the  person  or  persons 
who  shall  sue  for  the  same  and  the  other  moiety  to  the  church- 
wardens and  vestrymen  of  the  said  city  for  the  use  of  the  poor 
thereof,  the  said  forfeiture  to  be  recovered  with  costs  before  the 
mayor,  recorder  or  any  one  of  the  aldermen  of  the  said  city,  who  are 
hereby  empowered  in  a  summary  way  to  hear,  try,  and  determine 
any  suit  brought  for  such  forfeiture,  and  to  give  judgement  and  to 
award  execution  thereupon :  Provided,  That  this  act  shall  not  ex- 
tend to  any  person  or  persons  administering  physick  or  practising 
surgery  within  the  said  city  before  the  publication  thereof,  or  to  any 
person  having  his  Majesty's  commission  and  employed  in  his  service 
as  a  physician  and  surgeon." 

Toner  gives  the  titles  of  the  following  laws  enacted 
in  the  colony  of  Pennsylvania :  "  An  Act  to  prevent 
sickly  vessels  coming  into  this  government,"  enacted 
1700;  an  act  vesting  the  Province  Island,  and  the  build- 
ings thereon  erected  and  to  be  erected,  in  trustees,  and 
for  providing  an  hospital  for  such  sick  passengers  as 
shall  be  imported  into  this  province,  and  to  prevent  the 
spreading  of  infectious  distempers,  enacted  1742;  an  act 
for    prohibiting    the    importation    of    German    or    other 


462  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

passengers  in  too  great  quantities  in  any  one  vessel,  en- 
acted 1749;  an  act  to  encourage  the  establishing  of  an 
hospital  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  poor  of  this  province, 
and  for  the  reception  and  cure  of  lunaticks,  enacted  1751 ; 
an  act  regarding  the  importation  of  Germans  and  others, 
enacted  1765;  an  act  to  prevent  infectious  diseases  being 
brought  into  this  province,  enacted  1774. 

No  medical  legislation  was  attempted  in  New  Jersey, 
if  we  except  the  law  included  among  the  enactments  of 
the  Duke  of  York,  in  1665,  until  the  incorporation  of 
the  New  Jersey  Medical  Society  in  1766.  In  1772  the 
Legislature  passed  the  following : 

"An  Act  To  Regulate  the  Practice  of  Physic  and  Surgery  within 
the  Colony  of  New  Jersey. 

"  Passed  Sept.  26,  1772. 
"  Whereas  many  ignorant  and  unskilful  persons  in  Physic  and 
Surgery,  to  gain  a  subsistence,  do  take  upon  themselves  to  adminis- 
ter Physic  and  practise  Surgery,  in  the  Colony  of  New  Jersey,  to  the 
endangering  of  the  Lives  and  Limbs  of  their  Patients ;  and  many  of 
His  Majesty's  Subjects  who  have  been  persuaded  to  become  their 
Patients  have  been  Suffering  thereby;  for  the  Prevention  of  such 
Abuses  for  the  future  Be  It  Enacted  by  the  Governor,  Council  and 
General  Assembly  and  it  is  hereby  Enacted  by  the  Authority  of  the 
same,  That  from  and  after  the  Publication  of  this  act,  no  Person 
whatsoever  shall  practise  as  a  Physician  or  Surgeon,  within  this 
Colony  of  New  Jersey,  before  he  shall  have  first  been  examined  in 
Physic  and  Surgery,  approved  of,  and  admitted  by  any  two  of  the 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  for  the  time  being,  taking  to  their 
Assistance  for  such  Examination  such  proper  Person  or  Persons,  as 
they  in  their  Discretion  shall  think  fit,  for  which  service  the  said 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  Entitled  to  a  Fee 
of  twenty  shillings,  to  be  paid  by  the  Person  applying,  and  if  any 
Candidate,  after  due  Examination  of  his  Learning  and  Skill  in 
Physic  or  Surgery,  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  approved  and  admitted  to 
practise  as  a  Physician  or  Surgeon,  or  both,  the  said  Examiners,  or 
any  two  or  more  shall  give  under  their  Hands  and  Seals,  to  the 
Person  so  admitted  as  aforesaid,  a  Testimonial  of  his  Examination 
and  Admission  in  the  Form  following  to  wit : 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  463 

"To  all  to  whom  these  presents  shall  come  or  may  concern: 
know  ye,  that  We  whose  Names  are  hereunto  subscribed,  in  Pur- 
suance of  an  Act  of  the  Governor,  Council,  and  General  Assembly  of 
the  Colony  of  New  Jersey,  made  in  the  Twelfth  Year  of  the  Reign 
of  our  Sovereign  Lord  King  George  the  Third,  Entitled,  An  Act  to 
regulate  the  Practice  of  Physic  and  Surgery  within  the  Colony  of 
New  Jersey,  having  duly  examined  of  Physician  or  Sur- 
geon, or  Physician  and  Surgeon  as  the  case  may  be,  and  having  ap- 
proved of  his  Skill,  do  admit  him  as  a  Physician  or  Surgeon,  or 
Physician  and  Surgeon,  to  practise  in  the  said  Faculty  or  Faculties, 
throughout  the  Colony  of  New  Jersey.  In  Testimony  whereof  we 
have  hereunto  subscribed  our  Names  and  affixed  our  Seals  to  this 
Instrument,  at this  —  Day  of Anno  Domini  17 — 

"2.  And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  Authority  aforesaid,  That  if 
any  Person  or  Persons  shall  practise  as  a  Physician  or  Surgeon  or 
both  within  the  Colony  of  New  Jersey,  without  such  Testimonial  as 
aforesaid,  he  shall  forfeit  and  pay  for  every  such  Offence  the  Sum  of 
Five  Pounds;  one  Half  thereof  to  the  Use  of  any  Person  or  Persons 
who  shall  sue  for  the  same,  and  the  other  Half  to  the  Use  of  the 
Poor  of  any  City  or  Township  where  such  Person  shall  so  practise 
contrary  to  the  Tenor  of  this  Act ;  to  be  recorded  in  any  Court 
where  Sums  of  this  Amount  are  cognizable,  with  Costs  of  Suit. 

"  3.  Provided  Always,  that  this  Act  shall  not  be  construed  to  ex- 
tend to  any  Person  or  Persons  administering  Physic  or  practising 
Surgery  before  the  publication  hereof,  within  this  Colony,  or  to  any 
Person  bearing  his  Majesty's  Commission  and  employed  in  his  Ser- 
vice as  a  Physician  or  Surgeon. 

"And  provided  always  that  nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be  construed 
to  hinder  any  Person  or  Persons  from  bleeding,  drawing  Teeth,  or 
giving  Assistance  to  any  Person,  for  which  Services  such  Persons 
shall  not  be  entitled  to  make  any  Charge,  or  recover  any  Reward. 

"  Providing  also,  that  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  construed 
to  hinder  any  skillful  Physician  or  Surgeon  from  any  of  the  neigh- 
boring Colonies  being  sent  for  upon  any  particular  Occasion,  from 
practising  on  such  Occasion  within  this  Colony. 

"4.  And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  Authority  aforesaid,  That 
any  Person  now  practising  Physic  or  Surgery,  or  that  shall  hereafter 
be  licensed  as  by  this  Act  is  directed,  shall  deliver  his  Account  or 
Bill  of  Particulars  to  all  and  every  Patient  in  plain  English  Words, 
or  as  nearly  so  as  the  Articles  will  admit  of;  all  and  every  of  which 
Accounts  shall  be  liable,  whenever  the  Patient,  his  Executors  or 
Administrators  shall  require,  to  be  taxed  by  any  one  or  more  of  the 
Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  or  any  one  or  more  of  the  Judges  of 
the  Inferior  Court  of  Common  Pleas  of  the  County,  City  or  Borough 


464  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

wherein  the  party  complaining  resides,  calling  to  their  Assistance 
such  persons  therein  skilled  as  they  may  think  proper. 

"  5.  And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  Authority  aforesaid;  That 
every  Physician,  Surgeon  or  Mountebank  Doctor  who  shall  come 
into,  and  travel  through  this  Colony,  and  erect  any  Stage  or  Stages 
for  the  sale  of  Drugs  or  Medicines  of  any  Kind,  shall  for  every  such 
Offence  forfeit  and  pay  the  sum  of  Twenty  Pounds,  Proclamation 
money;  to  be  recovered  in  any  Court  where  the  same  may  be  cog- 
nizable, with  Costs  of  Suit;  one  Half  to  the  Person  who  will  prose- 
cute the  same  to  Effect,  the  other  Half  to  the  use  of  the  Poor  of  any 
City,  Borough,  Township  or  Precinct  where  the  offence  shall  be  com- 
mitted. 

"  6.  And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  Authority  aforesaid,  That 
this  Act,  and  every  clause  and  Article  herein  contained,  shall  con- 
tinue and  be  in  Force  for  the  space  of  Five  Years,  and  from  thence 
until  the  End  of  the  next  Session  of  the  General  Assembly,  and  no 
longer."  * 

This  law  was  re-enacted  in  1784. 

I  have  found  but  one  law  passed  by  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment of  Delaware  which  bore  in  any  way  on  the  regu- 
lation of  medical  affairs.  It  was  enacted  in  1726,  and  was 
"  An  act  to  prevent  infected  vessels  coming  into  this 
Government." 

Toner's  list  of  colonial  laws  applying  to  medical  mat- 
ters in  the  colony  of  Maryland  is  as  follows :  an  act  for 
appointing  coroners  in  each  respective  county,  enacted 
1666;  an  act  to  prevent  the  spreading  and  infection  of 
the  small-pox  from  a  vessel  belonging  to  Amos  Wood- 
ward, merchant,  enacted  1 73 1 ;  an  act  to  oblige  infected 
ships  and  other  vessels  coming  into  this  province  to  per- 
form quarantine,  enacted  1766;  an  act  to  continue  the 
foregoing  act,  enacted  1769;  an  act  to  prevent  infection 
from  the  ship  "  Chance,"  enacted  1774. 

In  the  Carolinas  there  was  much  legislation  on  medical 
affairs  by  the  colonial  authorities.     Toner  found  the  fol- 

*  Wickes,  History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey. 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  465 

lowing  laws  in  the  statutes  of  what  are  now  the  States  of 
North  and  South  Carolina,  passed  prior  to  the  Revolu- 
tion :  An  act  relating  unto  the  office  and  duty  of  a  coro- 
ner, and  settling  and  ascertaining  the  fees  of  same,  en- 
acted 1706;  an  act  appointing  coroners,  enacted  171 5; 
an  act  for  the  more  effectual  preventing  the  spreading  of 
contagious  distempers,  enacted  171 2;  an  act  for  pre- 
venting as  much  as  may  be  the  spreading  of  contagious 
distempers,  enacted  1721 ;  an  act  for  the  better  prevent- 
ing the  spreading  of  the  infection  of  small-pox  in  Charles- 
ton, enacted  1738;  acts  additive  to  the  act  for  preventing 
as  much  as  may  be  the  spreading  of  contagious  distem- 
pers, enacted  1747,  1752;  an  act  to  prevent  the  spread- 
ing of  contagious  and  malignant  distempers  in  this 
Province,  enacted  1752;  an  act  appropriating  for  a 
pest-house  and  other  purposes,  enacted  1754;  an  act  to 
prevent  malignant  and  infectious  distempers  being  spread 
by  shipping,  imported  distempered  persons  into  this 
Province,  and  other  purposes,  enacted  1755;  an  act 
for  preventing  as  much  as  may  be  the  spreading  of  con- 
tagious and  malignant  distempers  in  this  Province,  and 
repealing  the  former  acts  heretofore  made  for  that  pur- 
pose, enacted  1759;  an  act  for  preventing  as  much  as 
may  be  the  spreading  of  smallpox  in  Charlestown,  and 
the  further  spreading  of  that  distemper  in  this  Province, 
enacted  1760;  an  act  for  preventing  as  much  as  may 
be  the  spreading  of  the  smallpox,  enacted  1764;  an  act 
reviving  and  amending  the  act  of  1759;  an  act  to  oblige 
vessels  having  contagious  distempers  on  board  to  per- 
form their  quarantine,  enacted  1774. 


30 


466  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 


CHAPTER    XL 

THE   DISCOVERY    OF    ANESTHESIA. 

The  discovery  of  anaesthesia  was  attended  by  the  bit- 
terest and  most  acrimonious  discussion  as  to  who  was 
the  real  discoverer.  In  the  following  account  I  have  set 
aside  very  briefly  the  claims  of  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson, 
Dr.  Horace  Wells,  and  Dr.  Marcy.  In  my  opinion  the 
credit  of  first  using  ether  as  an  anaesthetic  is  due  to 
Crawford  W.  Long,  and  the  credit  of  demonstrating  its 
value  and  use  to  the  medical  profession  and  the  world 
must  be  ascribed  to  W.  T.  G.  Morton.  Dr.  Jackson  was 
consulted  by  Morton  on  the  subject  of  procuring  some 
substance  to  annul  pain  during  surgical  operations  and 
he  advised  him  to  try  sulphuric  ether,  saying  that  it 
would  produce  unconsciousness  when  inhaled.  Jackson 
went  no  further,  however.  He  never  tried  the  experi- 
ment of  using  ether,  and  the  fact  he  stated  had  been 
known  to  the  scientific  world  for  years. 

Horace  Wells  was  a  dentist  of  Hartford,  Connecticut. 
In  1844  he  heard  a  chemist  lecture  on  the  subject  of 
nitrous  oxide,  and  saw  a  young  man  who  had  inhaled 
some  of  it  run  against  furniture  and  bruise  himself  with- 
out experiencing  any  pain.  The  next  day  he  gave  him- 
self the  gas  and  allowed  a  Dr.  Riggs  to  pull  one  of  his 
teeth.  He  felt  no  pain,  and  on  becoming  conscious  made 
his  famous  remark,  "  A  new  era  in  tooth-pulling !"  He 
at  once  began  the  manufacture  and  use  of  nitrous  oxide. 
Dr.  Marcy  suggested  that  ether  would  make  an  available 
substitute,  producing  the  same  effect  without  requiring 


Dk.  (KAwi-oki)  \V.   L()N(;,  ai;ku  twk.ntv-six  vkars. 


(From  a  L-rayon  porlrail  madt-  a  iV-w  months  after  his  first  use  of  ether  as  an 
aiiiesthetic.) 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  467 

as  much  apparatus  as  the  gas,  but  Wells  thought  after  a 
superficial  investigation  that  ether  would  not  suffice. 

In  the  same  year,  1844,  two  years  after  Dr.  Long  had 
operated  on  patients  under  the  influence  of  ether,  Dr. 
Marcy  claimed  he  performed  an  operation  on  a  patient 
while  unconscious  from  the  drug.  Even  if  he  had  done 
so,  Long  antedated  him. 

Jackson,  Wells,  and  Marcy,  however,  all  pushed  their 
claims  for  the  discovery  of  anaesthesia.  Jackson  became 
insane  in  1873,  and  died  in  an  asylum  in  1880.  Wells 
died  in  1848  while  the  controversy  was  at  its  height. 
Marcy's  claims  were  very  generally  disregarded. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the  men 
to  whom  is  really  due  the  honor  of  so  great  a  step  towards 
the  annihilation  of  suffering. 

Dr.  Crawford  W.  Long  was  the  first  man  to  use  ether 
as  an  agent  to  relieve  the  pain  of  surgical  operations. 
As  the  subsequent  narrative  shows,  he  was  a  modest 
country  practitioner,  far  from  the  centres  of  medical 
learning  and  destitute  of  means  to  properly  exploit  his 
discovery.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  actually  realized 
what  a  vast  benefit  the  discovery  of  anaesthesia  would 
prove.  Probably  he  did  so  little  surgery  that  the  question 
of  the  relief  of  pain  was  not  presented  so  forcibly  to  his 
mind  as  to  that  of  others ;  yet  he  must  have  had  a  large 
obstetric  practice,  although  it  never  seems  to  have  oc- 
curred to  him  to  use  it  in  those  cases  at  all. 

Crawford  W.  Long  was  born  in  Danielsville,  Georgia, 
on  November  i,  181 5.  His  father  seems  to  have  been  a 
man  of  considerable  prominence  in  the  community.  Long 
received  the  degree  of  M.A.  from  Franklin  College  at  the 
age  of  nineteen,  and  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  1839.  Pie  spent  one  year  after 
this  in  a  New  York  hospital.     In  1841  he  settled  down  to 


468  THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

practise  at  Jefferson,  Jackson  County,  Georgia,  a  small 
town,  far  from  any  railroad.  It  appears  that  some  itiner- 
ant lecturers  on  chemistry  passed  through  the  town  at 
times,  and  an  almost  invariable  part  of  their  entertain- 
ment consisted  in  making  some  of  the  audience  drunk 
with  nitrous  oxide.  Some  young  men  who  had  heard 
what  pleasure  could  be  derived  from  this  inhalation  asked 
Long  to  try  it  on  them.  He  said  he  had  no  nitrous 
oxide,  but  that  ether  would  produce  the  same  effect. 
They  inhaled  it,  and  found  it  such  fun  that  ether  inhala- 
tions became  a  popular  source  of  amusement  all  through 
that  section  of  the  country.  During  January,  1842,  many 
such  frolics  were  held  in  Long's  office,  and  sometimes 
when  staggering  about  those  who  were  drunk  had  injured 
themselves  without  experiencing  the  least  pain.  Long 
remarked  this,  and  determined  to  use  it  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable in  a  surgical  operation.  On  March  30,  1842,  such 
an  opportunity  presented  itself,  and  he  operated  on  a 
man  named  James  Venables,  removing  a  small  cystic 
tumor  of  the  jaw.  The  following  is  Venables's  descrip- 
tion of  the  occurrence,  which  he  made  under  oath : 

"  I  James  M.  Venables,  of  the  county  of  Cobb  and  State  of 
Georgia,  on  oath  depose  and  say,  that  in  the  year  1842  I  resided  at 
my  mother's  in  Jackson  County  about  two  miles  from  the  village  of 
Jefferson,  and  attended  the  village  academy  that  year.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  year  the  young  men  of  Jefferson  and  the  country  adjoin- 
ing were  in  the  habit  of  inhaling  ether  for  its  exhilarating  powers, 
and  I  inhaled  it  frequently  for  that  purpose,  and  was  very  fond  of 
its  use. 

"  While  attending  the  academy  I  was  frequently  in  the  office  of 
Dr.  C.  W.  Long,  and  having  two  tumors  on  the  back  of  my  neck,  I 
several  times  spoke  4:o  him  about  the  propriety  of  cutting  them  out, 
but  postponed  the  operation  from  time  to  time.  On  one  occasion  we 
had  some  conversation  about  the  probability  that  the  tumors  might 
be  cut  out  while  I  was  under  the  influence  of  ether,  without  my  ex- 
periencing pain,  and  he  proposed  operating  on  me  while  under  its 
influence.    I  agreed  to  have  one  tumor  cut  out,  and  had  the  operation 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  469 

performed  that  evening  after  school  was  dismissed.    This  was  in  the 
early  part  of  the  spring  of  1842. 

"  I  commenced  inhaling  the  ether  before  the  operation  was  com- 
menced and  continued  it  until  the  operation  was  over.  I  did  not  feel 
the  slightest  pain  from  the  operation  and  could  not  believe  the 
tumor  was  removed  until  it  was  shown  to  me. 

"  A  month  or  two  after  this  time  Dr.  C.  W.  Long  cut  out  the 
other  tumor  situated  on  the  same  side  of  my  neck.  In  this  operation 
I  did  not  feel  the  least  pain  until  the  last  cut  was  made,  when  I  felt 
a  little  pain.  In  this  operation  I  stopped  inhaling  the  ether  before 
the  operation  was  finished. 

"  I  inhaled  the  ether,  in  both  cases,  from  a  towel,  which  was  the 
common  method  of  taking  it. 

(Signed)  "James  M.  Venables. 

"  Georgia,  ^ 

Cobb  Co.,  >  Sworn  to  before  me 

July  23rd,  1849.    3  Alfred  Manes,  J.  P." 

Long  read  the  following  paper  before  the  Georgia 
State  Medical  Society  in  1842,  and  it  gives  such  a  suc- 
cinct statement  of  the  whole  matter  that  I  prefer  giving 
it  in  full  to  making  any  abstract  from  it : 

"  In  the  month  of  December,  1841,  or  Jan.,  1842,  the  subject  of  the 
inhalation  of  nitrous  oxide  gas  was  introduced  in  a  company  of 
young  men  assembled  at  night  in  the  village  of  Jefferson,  Ga.,  and  the 
party  requested  me  to  prepare  them  some.  I  informed  them  I  had 
not  the  requisite  apparatus  for  preparing  or  preserving  the  gas,  but 
that  I  had  an  article  (sul.  ether)  which  would  produce  equally 
exhilarating  effects  and  was  as  safe.  The  company  were  anxious  to 
witness  its  effects,  the  ether  was  introduced  and  all  present  in  turn 
inhaled.  They  were  so  much  pleased  with  its  effects  that  they  after- 
ward frequently  used  it  and  induced  others  to  do  the  same,  and  the 
practice  soon  became  quite  fashionable  in  the  country  and  some  of 
the  contiguous  counties.  On  numerous  occasions  I  inhaled  ether  for 
its  exhilarating  properties,  and  would  frequently,  at  some  short  time 
subsequent  to  its  inhalation,  discover  bruised  or  painful  spots  on  my 
person  which  I  had  no  recollection  of  causing  and  which  I  felt  satis- 
fied were  received  while  under  the  influence  of  ether.  I  noticed  my 
friends  while  etherized  received  falls  and  blows  which  I  believed 
were  sufficient  to  produce  pain  on  a  person  not  in  a  state  of  anaes- 
thesia, and  on  questioning  them  they  uniformly  assured  me  that 
they  did  not  feel  the  least  pain  from  these  accidents.  Observing 
these  facts  I  was  led  to  believe  that  anaesthesia  was  produced  by  the 


470  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

inhalation  of  ether,  and  that  its  use  would  be  applicable  in  surgical 
operations. 

"  The  first  patient  to  whom  I  administered  ether  in  a  surgical 
operation  was  Mr.  James  M.  Venables,  who  then  resided  within  two 
miles  of  Jefferson,  and  at  present  lives  in  Cobb  Co.,  Ga.  Mr.  Vena- 
bles consulted  me  on  several  occasions  in  regard  to  the  propriety 
of  removing  two  small  tumors  situated  on  the  back  part  of  his  neck, 
but  would  postpone  from  time  to  time  having  the  operation  per- 
formed from  dread  of  pain.  At  length  I  mentioned  to  him  the  fact 
of  my  receiving  bruises  while  under  the  influence  of  the  vapor  of 
ether  without  suffering,  and  as  I  knew  him  to  be  fond  of  and  ac- 
customed to  inhale  ether,  I  suggested  to  him  the  probability  that  the 
operation  might  be  performed  without  pain,  and  proposed  operating 
on  him  while  under  its  influence.  He  consented  to  have  one  tumor 
removed,  and  the  operation  was  performed  the  same  evening.  The 
ether  was  given  to  Mr.  Venables  on  a  towel,  and  when  fully  under 
its  influence  I  extirpated  the  tumor.  It  was  encysted  and  about 
half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  patient  continued  to  inhale  ether 
during  the  time  of  the  operation,  and  when  informed  it  was  over, 
seemed  incredulous  until  the  tumor  was  shown  him. 

"  He  gave  no  evidence  of  suffering  during  the  operation,  and 
assured  me,  after  it  was  over,  that  he  did  not  experience  the  least 
degree  of  pain  during  its  performance.  This  operation  was  per- 
formed on  the  30th  March,  1842.  The  second  I  performed  on  a 
patient  etherized  was  on  the  6th  June,  1842,  and  was  on  the  same 
person,  for  the  removal  of  the  other  small  tumor.  This  operation 
required  more  time  than  the  first,  from  the  cyst  of  the  tumor  having 
formed  adhesions  to  the  adjoining  parts. 

"  The  patient  was  insensible  to  pain  during  the  operation  until 
the  last  attachment  of  the  cyst  was  separated,  when  he  exhibited 
signs  of  slight  suffering,  but  asserted  after  the  operation  was  over 
that  the  sensation  of  pain  was  so  slight  as  scarcely  to  be  perceived. 
In  this  operation  the  inhalation  of  ether  ceased  before  the  first  in- 
cision was  made.  Since  that  time  I  have  invariably  desired  patients, 
when  practicable,  to  continue  the  inhalation  during  the  time  of  the 
operation.  Having  permitted  such  a  length  of  time  to  elapse  with- 
out making  public  my  experiments  in  etherization,  in  order  to  show 
the  correctness  of  my  statements  I  procured  this  certificate  of  the 
patient  on  whom  the  first  operation  was  performed,  the  certificate 
of  two  who  were  present  at  the  time  of  the  operation,  and  also 
those  of  his  mother,  brothers  and  sisters  and  a  number  of  his  im- 
mediate friends  who  heard  him  speak  of  the  operations  soon  after 
they  were  performed.  The  Southern  Med.  and  Surg.  Journal  (De- 
cember, 1849)  contained  but  two  of  the  certificates.    I  have  a  number 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  471 

of  others  which  can  be  seen  or  read  if  desired  by  the  Society.  My 
third  case  was  a  negro  boy  who  had  a  disease  of  a  toe  which  ren- 
dered amputation  necessary,  and  the  operation  was  performed  July 
3rd,  1842,  without  the  boy  evincing  the  slightest  sign  of  pain. 

"  These  were  all  the  surgical  operations  performed  by  me  during 
the  winter  of  1842  upon  patients  etherized,  no  other  case  occurring 
in  which  I  believed  the  inhalation  of  ether  applicable.  Since  '42 
I  have  performed  one  or  more  surgical  operations  annually,  on 
patients  in  a  state  of  etherization. 

"  I  procured  some  certificates  in  regard  to  these  operations,  but 
not  with  the  same  particularity  as  in  regard  to  the  first  operations, 
from  the  fact  of  my  sole  object  in  the  publication  being  to  establish 
my  claim  to  priority  of  discovery  of  the  power  of  ether  to  produce 
anaesthesia.    However,  these  certificates  can  be  examined. 

"  The  reasons  which  influenced  me  in  not  publishing  earlier  are 
as  follows : 

"  I  was  anxious,  before  making  my  publication,  to  try  etherization 
in  a  sufficient  number  of  cases  to  fully  satisfy  my  mind  that  anaes- 
thesia was  produced  by  the  ether,  and  was  not  the  effect  of  the 
imagination  or  owing  to  any  peculiar  insusceptibility  to  pain  in  the 
persons  experimented  on. 

"  At  the  time  I  was  experimenting  with  ether  there  were  physi- 
cians high  in  authority  and  of  justly  distinguished  character  who 
were  the  advocates  of  mesmerism,  and  recommended  the  induction 
of  the  mesmeric  state  as  adequate  to  prevent  pain  in  surgical  opera- 
tions. Notwithstanding  thus  sanctioned  I  was  an  unbeliever  in  the* 
science,  and  of  the  opinion  that  if  the  mesmeric  state  could  be  pro- 
duced at  all  it  was  only  on  those  of  strong  imaginations  and  weak 
minds,  and  was  to  be  ascribed  solely  to  the  workings  of  the  patient's 
imagination.  Entertaining  this  opinion,  I  was  the  more  particular  in 
my  experiments  in  etherization.  Surgical  operations  are  not  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  a  country  practice,  and  especially  in  the  practice 
of  a  young  physician,  yet  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  two 
cases  in  which  I  could  satisfactorily  test  the  anaesthetic  power  of 
ether.  From  one  of  these  patients  I  removed  three  tumors  the  same 
day ;  the  inhalation  of  ether  was  used  only  in  the  second  operation, 
and  it  was  effectual  in  preventing  pain,  while  the  patient  suffered 
severely  from  the  extirpation  of  the  other  tumor.  In  the  other  case 
I  amputated  two  fingers  of  a  negro  boy ;  the  boy  was  etherized 
during  one  operation  and  not  during  the  other ;  he  suffered  from  one 
operation  and  was  insensible  during  the  other.  After  fully  satisfying 
myself  of  the  power  of  ether  to  produce  anaesthesia,  I  was  desirous 
of  administering  it  in  a  severer  surgical  operation  than  any  I  had 
performed.    In  my  practice,  prior  to  the  published  account  of  the  use 


472  THE   HISTORY    OF   MEDICINE 

of  ether  as  an  anaesthetic,  I  had  no  opportunity  of  experimenting 
with  it  in  a  capital  operation,  my  cases  being  confined,  with  one  ex- 
ception, to  the  extirpation  of  small  tumors  and  the  amputation  of 
fingers  and  toes.  While  cautiously  experimenting  with  ether,  as 
cases  occurred,  with  the  view  of  fully  testing  its  anaesthetic  powers 
and  its  applicability  to  severe  as  well  as  minor  surgical  operations, 
others  more  favorably  situated  engaged  in  similar  experiments  and 
consequently  the  publication  of  etherization  did  not  '  bide  my  time.' 
I  know  that  I  delayed  the  publication  too  long  to  receive  any  honor 
from  the  priority  of  discovery,  but  having  by  the  persuasion  of  my 
friends  presented  my  claim  before  the  profession,  I  prefer  that  its 
correctness  be  fully  investigated  before  the  Med.  Society.  Should 
the  Society  say  that  the  claim,  though  well  founded,  is  forfeited  by 
not  being  presented  earlier,  I  will  cheerfully  respond,  so  mote  it  be. 

"  Not  wishing  to  intrude  upon  the  time  of  the  Society,  I  have 
made  this  short  compendium  of  all  the  material  points  stated  in  my 
article  in  the  Journal,  and  if  the  Society  wishes  any  fuller  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  I  will  cheerfully  comply  with  their  wishes." 

Long  did  not  push  himself  into  the  arena  as  a  claimant 
for  the  honor  of  the  discovery  of  anaesthesia  until  1854, 
when,  at  the  solicitation  of  his  friends,  he  wrote  to  Sena- 
tor Dawson,  giving  him  an  account  of  what  he  had  done. 
Morton  was  then  diligently  pushing  his  claim  for  com- 
pensation before  Congress,  and  it  was  evident  if  that 
body  were  to  yield  him  its  official  recognition  it  would 
have  definitely  settled  all  claims  in  his  favor.  Long 
does  not  appear  to  have  at  any  time  considered  the  fact 
of  pecuniary  reward.  Senator  Dawson  told  Dr.  C.  T. 
Jackson  of  this  new  claimant  for  the  honor,  and  Jackson 
called  upon  Long  to  discuss  the  matter  personally  with 
him.  Long  convinced  Jackson  of  the  justness  of  his 
claim,  and  the  latter  wrote  to  Senator  Dawson  and  told 
him  that  he  withdrew  his  claim,  as  he  believed  Long  was 
the  discoverer.  In  the  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical 
Journal  for  April  11,  1861,  Dr.  Jackson  publicly  an- 
nounced, in  a  letter  to  the  editors,  that  he  considered 
Dr.  Long  to  be  justly  entitled  to  the  honor  of  being  the 
discoverer  of  ether  anaesthesia. 


W.     r.    ("..    MoKToN. 
(  I'roiii   the  ■•  Sriiii('riitciiiii:il   (il    .\ii;isllu'si;i ,"    Mosloii,    i8q6.) 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  473 

Long  was  very  modest  and  retiring,  and  his  claim  was 
allowed  to  be  almost  forgotten  until  Dr.  J.  Marion  Sims 
stated  it  once  more,  in  an  article  in  the  Virginia  Medical 
Monthly  for  May,  1877. 

Long,  in  1842,  married  Miss  Caroline  Swain,  niece  of 
Governor  Swain,  of  North  Carolina.  His  life  seems  to 
have  been  a  peaceful,  happy,  and  honored  one.  He  died 
of  apoplexy,  June  16,  1878,  aged  sixty-two. 

It  is  sometimes  said  he  died  in  poverty,  but  this  is  a 
mistake.  He  left  an  estate  valued  at  forty  thousand 
dollars. 

The  credit  of  demonstrating  to  the  world  the  practica- 
bility of  the  use  of  ether  as  an  anaesthetic,  and  of  realizing 
the  immense  boon  the  substance  was  to  mankind,  must 
be  ascribed  to  William  Thomas  Green  Morton,  who  was 
born  at  Charlton,  Worcester  County,  Massachusetts,  on 
August  19,  1 8 19.  His  father  kept  a  store  and  had  also 
a  farm  of  considerable  size,  on  which  the  son  spent  most 
of  the  days  of  his  youth.  He  received  an  ordinary  school 
education,  and  then  began  life  as  a  clerk  in  a  store.  As 
a  boy  Morton  is  said  to  have  had  a  strong  desire  to  study 
medicine,  but  his  father  had  not  the  means  to  gratify  his 
aspirations.  The  young  man  had  a  decided  bent  for 
mechanics,  and  in  1840  he  began  the  study  of  dentistry 
in  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  which  had 
recently  started  on  its  career,  the  first  regularly  estab- 
lished college  of  dentistry  in  the  United  States.  Morton 
joined  its  first  class,  and  after  receiving  his  diploma  en- 
tered into  partnership  with  Dr.  Horace  Wells  to  practise 
dentistry  in  Boston.  Little  could  either  of  them  foresee 
of  the  bitter  feud  which  was  subsequently  to  spring  up 
between  them.  In  1843,  their  business  having  proved 
unprofitable,  they  dissolved  partnership,  and  Morton 
opened  dental  parlors  by  himself.     In   1844  he  married 


474  THE    HISTORY    OF    MEDICINE 

Miss  Elizabeth  Whitman,  of  Farmington,  Connecticut, 
who  remained  his  loyal  helpmeet  in  all  his  subsequent 
troubles.  He  proved  very  successful  in  his  practice,  so 
much  so  that  in  1844  he  entered  as  a  student  in  the  Har- 
vard Medical  School,  continuing  during  his  work  there 
the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  did  not  graduate  from 
Harvard,  as  is  sometimes  erroneously  stated,  because  his 
successful  demonstration  of  anaesthesia  occurred  before 
the  completion  of  his  course,  and  resulted  in  overwhelm- 
ing him  with  demands  on  his  time  to  such  an  extent  that 
he  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  medical  studies. 

Morton's  mind  was  first  directed  to  the  study  of  the 
production  of  anaesthesia  by  his  discovery  of  a  new 
method  of  inserting  artificial  teeth.  The  old  way  had 
been  to  solder  the  artificial  tooth  upon  a  gold  plate,  the 
latter  being  placed  directly  over  the  fangs  of  the  old 
teeth.  To  fasten  the  artificial  teeth  upon  the  plate  it  was 
necessary  to  use  a  gold  solder  of  softer  consistency  than 
the  metal  plate,  as  a  heat  sufficient  to  heat  the  solder 
would  have  melted  the  plate  beneath.  This  method 
caused  a  reaction  to  occur  between  the  metals  in  the 
solder  and  the  gold  plate,  as  a  result  of  which  the  solder 
would  change  color,  and  each  tooth  would  have  a  black 
line  at  its  base.  Likewise,  the  retention  of  discharge  be- 
tween the  roots  of  the  old  tooth  and  the  plate  resulted  in 
a  decomposition  of  the  organic  material,  which  rendered 
the  breath  intolerably  offensive.  Dr.  Morton  found  a 
way  to  use  a  solder  of  the  same  material  as  the  plate,  but 
his  plan  involved  the  removal  of  the  old  fangs.  This  was 
always  a  very  painful  process,  and  thus  his  mind  was  set 
to  work  on  some  plan  by  which  this  troublesome  feature 
might  be  obviated.  Morton  tried  to  lessen  the  pain  in 
many  instances  by  producing  alcoholic  intoxication  or 
by  the  administration  of  large  amounts  of  opium.     Dr. 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  475 

Rice  ^  gives  the  following  extract  from  a  case-book  of 
Morton's : 

"  Mrs.  S to  have  the  whole  of  teeth  in  both  jaws  extracted. 

Commenced  giving  opiates  about  noon.  Gave  first  150  drops  of 
laudanum.  Twenty  minutes  later,  gave  150  additional.  Waited  ten 
minutes  and  gave  100  drops  more.  Gave  200  drops  more  with  inter- 
vals of  five  minutes.  Whole  amount  given  500  drops  in  forty-five 
minutes.  At  the  expiration  of  this,  she  was  sleepy,  but  able  to  walk 
to  the  chair.  Immediately  on  extraction  of  first  tooth  she  vomited. 
She  continued  in  this  way  for  one  hour,  during  which  time  the  rest 
of  the  teeth  were  extracted.  She  was  conscious,  but  insensible  to 
a  considerable  degree.  On  returning  home,  she  continued  to  vomit 
at  intervals  during  the  afternoon.    Entirely  recovered  in  a  week." 

In  one  of  his  cases  he  applied  ether  locally  and  found 
it  benumbed  the  part. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  Morton  experimented 
extensively  with  sulphuric  ether  in  pursuit  of  his  object, 
and  that  from  an  early  date  that  substance  seemed  to  him 
to  possess  properties  which  might  be  utilized  to  produce 
anaesthesia.  In  the  course  of  his  experiments  he  suc- 
ceeded in  rendering  himself  unconscious  by  its  inhala- 
tion, and  on  that  same  day,  the  30th  of  September,  1846, 
he  extracted  a  tooth  whilst  the  patient  was  unconscious 
from  ether.  It  was  also  on  this  date  that  he  spoke  to 
Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson  on  the  subject,  and  that  conversation 
was  destined  to  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  subse- 
quent wrangling.  It  would  appear  from  the  evidence 
before  the  Senate  Committee  that  Dr.  Morton  called  on 
Dr.  Jackson  with  a  view  of  obtaining  information  bear- 
ing upon  his  researches.  As  a  man  who  deemed  himself 
on  the  verge  of  a  great  discovery  and  trembling  with 
fear  lest  some  one  should  anticipate  him,  he  took  the 
greatest  pains  to  conceal  the  real  progress  he  had  made 
and  the  nature  of  the  substance  he  was  experimenting 

'  Trials  of  a  Public  Benefactor. 


476  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

with.  The  power  of  ether  to  produce  unconsciousness 
when  inhaled  led  Jackson  to  mention  it  to  Morton.  The 
latter  pretended  to  have  never  heard  of  this  property- 
possessed  by  ether,  and  dissembled  so  skilfully  that  Jack- 
son afterwards  maintained  that  Morton  had  no  knowl- 
edge of  ether  at  this  time,  and  that  he  was  the  first  to 
suggest  its  use  to  him.  There  were  four  persons  present 
at  this  interview,  and  in  their  relation  of  what  occurred 
they  all  differed.  All  agreed  in  one  point, — namely,  that 
Dr.  Morton  assumed  total  ignorance  of  sulphuric  ether, 
its  nature  and  qualities,  and  left  the  impression  on  the 
minds  of  those  present  that  he  knew  nothing  of  it. 

Morton,  wishing  to  get  endorsements  and  support  from 
the  medical  profession,  decided  to  try  and  induce  the 
surgeons  of  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital  to  allow 
him  to  demonstrate  his  discovery  in  their  presence.  He 
therefore  called  on  Dr.  J.  C.  Warren  and  requested  an 
opportunity  to  use  what  he  called  his  "  preparation"  on 
a  case  at  the  Hospital.  Dr.  Warren  promised  to  aid  him, 
and  soon  after  Morton  received  the  following  letter: 

"  Dear  Sir  :   I  write  at  the  request  of  Dr.  J.  C.  Warren,  to  invite 
you  to  be  present  on  Friday  morning  at  lo  o'clock,  at  the  hospital, 
to  administer  to  a  patient  who  is  then  to  be  operated  upon  the  prepa- 
ration which  you  have  invented  to  diminish  the  sensibility  to  pain. 
"  Yours  respectfully 

"  C.  F.  Heywood. 
"  House  Surgeon  to  the  General  Hospital,  October  14th,  1846. 
"  Dr.  Morton,  Tremont  Row." 

The  day  thus  fixed  was  October  16. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  A.  A.  Gould,  the  distin- 
guished naturalist,  of  Boston,  Dr.  Morton  had  a  new 
form  of  apparatus  constructed  for  use  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  anaesthetic.  This  caused  some  delay  in  his 
arrival  at  the  Hospital,  and  it  was  at  first  supposed  by 
those  gathered  in  the  operating-room  that  he  was  afraid 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  477 

to  appear  and  had  backed  out.  The  best  account  of  the 
scene  by  an  eye-witness  is  that  written  by  Dr.  Washing- 
ton Ayer,  of  San  Francisco,  pubHshed  in  the  "  Account 
of  the  Semi-Centennial  of  Anaesthesia"  at  Harvard.  He 
writes : 

"  The  day  arrived ;  the  time  appointed  was  noted  on  the  dial, 
when  the  patient  was  led  into  the  operating-room,  and  Dr.  Warren 
and  a  board  of  the  most  eminent  surgeons  in  the  State  were  gathered 
around  the  sufferer.  '  All  is  ready — the  stillness  oppressive.'  It  had 
been  announced  '  that  a  test  of  some  preparation  was  to  be  made  for 
which  the  astonishing  claim  had  been  made  that  it  would  render  the 
person  operated  upon  free  from  pain.'  These  are  the  words  of  Dr. 
Warren  that  broke  the  stillness. 

"  Those  present  were  incredulous,  and,  as  Dr.  Morton  had  not 
arrived  at  the  time  appointed  and  fifteen  minutes  had  passed,  Dr. 
Warren  said,  with  significant  meaning,  '  I  presume  he  is  otherwise 
engaged.'  This  was  followed  with  a  '  derisive  laugh,'  and  Dr.  War- 
ren grasped  his  knife  and  was  about  to  proceed  with  the  operation. 
At  that  moment  Dr.  Morton  entered  a  side  door,  when  Dr.  Warren 
turned  to  him  and  in  a  strong  voice  said,  '  Well,  sir,  your  patient  is 
ready.'  In  a  few  minutes  he  was  ready  for  the  surgeon's  knife,  when 
Dr.  Morton  said,  '  Your  patient  is  ready,  sir.' 

"  Here  the  most  sublime  scene  ever  witnessed  in  the  operating- 
room  was  presented,  when  the  patient  placed  himself  voluntarily 
upon  the  table,  which  was  to  become  the  altar  of  future  fame.  Not 
that  he  did  so  for  the  purpose  of  advancing  the  science  of  medicine, 
nor  for  the  good  of  his  fellow-men,  for  the  act  itself  was  purely  a 
personal  and  selfish  one.  He  was  about  to  assist  in  solving  a  new 
and  important  problem  of  therapeutics,  whose  benefits  were  to  be 
given  to  the  whole  civilized  world,  yet  wholly  unconscious  of  the 
sublimity  of  the  occasion  or  the  part  he  was  taking. 

"  That  was  a  supreme  moment  for  a  most  wonderful  discovery, 
and  had  the  patient  died  under  the  operation,  science  would  have 
waited  long  to  discover  the  hypnotic  effects  of  some  other  remedy 
of  equal  potency  and  safety,  and  it  may  be  properly  questioned 
whether  chloroform  would  have  come  into  use  as  it  has  at  the  present 
time. 

"  The  heroic  bravery  of  the  man  who  voluntarily  placed  himself 
upon  the  table,  a  subject  for  the  surgeon's  knife,  should  be  recorded 
and  his  name  enrolled  upon  parchment,  which  should  be  hung  upon 
the  walls  of  the  surgical  amphitheatre  in  which  the  operation  was 
performed.    His  name  was  Gilbert  Abbott. 


478  THE    HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE 

"  The  operation  was  for  a  congenital  tumor  on  the  left  side  of  the 
neck,  extending  along  the  jaw  to  the  maxillary  gland  and  into  the 
mouth,  embracing  the  margin  of  the  tongue.  The  operation  was  suc- 
cessful ;  and  when  the  patient  recovered  he  declared  he  had  suffered 
no  pain.  Dr.  Warren  turned  to  those  present  and  said,  '  Gentlemen, 
this  is  no  humbug.'  " 

The  following  is  the  Hospital  record  of  the  case : 

"  Gilbert  Abbott,  age  twenty,  painter,  single  ;  tumor  on  face.  This 
man  had  from  birth  a  tumor  under  the  jaw,  on  the  left  side.  It 
occupies  all  space  anterior  to  neck,  bounded  on  the  inside  by  median 
line,  on  the  outside  is  even  with  the  edge  of  jaw;  below,  on  a  level 
with  the  Pomum  Adami,  and  in  front  tapers  gradually  as  far  as 
anterior  edge  of  jaw;  integuments  not  adherent  to  it;  skin  smooth 
and  of  natural  color;  it  is  uniformly  soft,  except  in  centre,  where  a 
small  hard  lump  can  be  felt,  corresponding  in  size  and  situation  with 
submaxillary  gland ;  can  be  made  to  disappear  by  compression,  but 
seems  rather  to  be  displaced  than  emptied.  The  edge  of  the  lower 
jaw-bone  can  be  felt,  through  the  tumor,  to  be  irregular.  On  exami- 
nation of  the  inside  of  the  mouth,  find  a  soft  smooth  tumor,  a  hemi- 
sphere about  five  lines  in  diameter,  of  a  livid  color,  on  the  left  lobe 
of  tongue,  about  an  inch  behind  tip.  That  portion  of  the  organ  in 
front  and  underneath  the  tumor  is  of  a  dark  purple  color.  This 
tumor  is  readily  emptied  by  slight  pressure,  but  it  fills  again  in  one 
or  two  seconds,  but  not  sooner  when  pressure  is  made  simultaneously 
upon  the  external  tumor.  For  distance  of  five  lines  from  angle  of 
mouth  on  right  side  the  lower  lip  is  of  a  livid  hue.  This  seems  to 
be  a  continuation  of  a  stripe,  similar  in  appearance,  which  extends 
from  angle  of  jaw  on  right  side  about  on  level  of  lower  teeth;  it  is 
about  four  lines  wide  and  slightly  raised ;  its  color  seems  to  depend 
on  small  spots  like  granulations,  of  a  livid  color,  set  on  mucous 
membrane  of  ordinary  appearance. 

"  This  case  is  remarkable  in  the  annals  of  surgery.  It  was  the 
first  surgical  operation  performed  under  the  influence  of  ether.  Dr. 
Warren  had  been  applied  to  by  Mr.  Morton,  a  dentist,  with  the 
request  that  he  would  try  the  inhalation  of  a  fluid  which,  he  said, 
he  had  found  to  be  effectual  in  preventing  pain  during  operations 
upon  the  teeth.  Dr.  Warren  having  satisfied  himself  that  the 
breathing  of  the  fluid  would  be  harmless,  agreed  to  employ  it  when 
an  opportunity  presented.  None  occurring  within  a  day  or  two  in 
private  practice  he  determined  to  use  it  in  this  patient.  Before  the 
operation  began,  some  time  was  lost  in  waiting  for  Mr.  Morton,  and 
ultimately  it  was  thought  he  would  not  appear.     At  length  he  ar- 


IN    THE   UNITED    STATES.  479 

rived,  and  explained  his  detention  by  informing  Dr.  Warren  that 
he  had  been  occupied  in  preparing  his  apparatus,  which  consisted  of 
a  tube  connected  with  a  glass  globe.  This  apparatus  he  then  pro- 
ceeded to  apply,  and  after  four  or  five  minutes  the  patient  appeared  to 
be  asleep,  and  the  operation  was  performed  as  herein  described.  To 
the  surprise  of  Dr.  Warren  and  the  other  gentlemen  present,  the 
patient  did  not  shrink,  nor  cry  out,  but  during  the  insulation  of  the 
veins  he  began  to  move  his  limbs  and  utter  extraordinary  expres- 
sions, and  these  movements  seemed  to  indicate  the  existence  of  pain ; 
but  after  he  had  recovered  his  faculties  he  said  that  he  had  ex- 
perienced none,  but  only  a  sensation  like  that  of  scraping  the  part 
with  a  blunt  instrument,  and  he  ever  afterward  continued  to  say 
that  he  had  not  felt  any  pain. 

"  Note. — The  results  of  this  operation  led  to  the  repetition  of  the 
use  of  ether  in  other  cases,  and  in  a  few  days  its  success  was  estab- 
lished, and  its  use  resorted  to  in  every  considerable  operation  in  the 
city  of  Boston  and  its  vicinity." 

A  few  days  later  Dr.  Morton  was  told  that  the  "  sur- 
geons of  the  hospital  thought  it  their  duty  to  decline  the 
use  of  the  preparation  until  informed  what  it  was."  After 
some  further  correspondence  and  interviews  Morton  told 
them  what  the  substance  was,  thus  really  showing  the 
spirit  of  a  public  benefactor.  There  has  been  much  dis- 
pute as  to  Morton's  conduct  in  this  matter,  some  holding 
that  it  was  monstrous  for  him  to  try  and  secrete  the 
nature  of  his  discovery  and  secure  a  patent  for  his  rights, 
others  justifying  his  course  in  the  matter.  I  think  that 
due  attention  should  be  given  to  the  fact  that  Morton 
had  worked  hard  and  by  virtue  of  his  labors  discovered 
something  of  the  greatest  commercial  value.  Just  im- 
agine what  it  would  mean  to  a  man  to  hold  such  a  patent. 
Dentists  have  always  been  in  the  habit  of  patenting  any 
devices  or  appliances  which  they  have  discovered,  and 
no  one  has  thought  any  the  worse  of  them  for  doing  it. 
Morton  was  not  a  doctor,  and  consequently  under  no 
professional  obligations.  It  would,  of  course,  have  been 
a  beautiful  and  noble  thing  for  him  to  have  freely  given 


48o  THE    HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE 

this  great  boon  to  the  world,  but  it  was  almost  too  much 
to  expect.  And  then  it  is  but  right  to  place  some  belief 
in  what  Morton  claimed  was  the  reason  he  wished  the 
nature  of  the  substance  he  used  to  remain  a  secret, — 
namely,  that  he  might  perfect  the  method  of  its  use,  and 
not  come  before  the  world  with  his  discovery  until  he  had 
become  positively  assured  of  its  efficacy.  Certainly  the 
surgeons  of  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital,  than 
whom  no  more  competent  set  of  judges  could  be  found, 
believed  in  Morton's  sincerity  from  the  outset  and  main- 
tained their  confidence  in  him  to  the  last. 

A  patent  was  issued  to  Morton  on  November  12,  1846, 
and  on  December  21,  1846,  he  secured  an  English  patent 
through  an  English  subject  named  Dore,  who  at  once 
assigned  his  rights  to  Morton. 

Morton  called  the  anaesthetic  "  Letheon,"  but,  of 
course,  this  term  was  soon  given  up  for  the  real  name  of 
the  substance, — ether.  The  term  anaesthetic  was  first 
suggested  by  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  in  the  following 
letter  to  Dr.  Morton : 

"  Boston^  Nov.  21st,  1846. 

"  My  Dear  Sir  : — Everybody  wants  to  have  a  hand  in  a  great  dis- 
covery. All  I  will  do  is  to  give  you  a  hint  or  two,  as  to  names,  or 
the  name,  to  be  applied  to  the  state  produced  and  the  agent.  The 
state  should  I  think  be  called  '  Anaesthesia.'  This  signifies  insensi- 
bility, more  particularly  (as  used  by  Linnaeus  and  Cullen)  to  objects 
of  touch.  (See  Good — Nosology,  p.  259.)  The  adjective  will  be 
'  Anaesthetic'  Thus  we  might  say,  the  state  of  anaesthesia,  or  the 
anaesthetic  state.  The  means  employed  would  be  properly  called  the 
anti-aesthetic  agent.  Perhaps  it  might  be  allowable  to  say  anaesthetic 
agent,  but  this  admits  of  question. 

"  The  words,  antineuritic,  aneuric,  neuro-leptic,  neuro-lepsia, 
neuro-etasis,  etc.,  seem  too  anatomical;  whereas  the  change  is  a 
physiological  one.  I  throw  them  out  for  consideration.  I  would 
have  a  name  pretty  soon,  and  consult  some  accomplished  scholar, 
such  as  President  Everett  or  Dr.  Bigelow,  senior,  before  fixing  upon 
the  terms,  which  will  be  repeated  by  the  tongues  of  every  civilized 


IN   THE   UNITED    STATES.  481 

race  of  mankind.  You  could  mention  these  words  which  I  suggest 
for  their  consideration;  but  there  may  be  others  more  appropriate 
and  agreeable. 

"  Yours  respectfully, 

"  O.  W.  Holmes. 
"  Dr.  Morton." 

Although  the  medical  profession  in  Boston  were  almost 
unanimous  in  extolling  the  benefits  of  ether  and  in  their 
support  of  Dr.  Morton,  his  discovery  met  with  the  usual 
fate,  and  he  had  to  contend  against  the  most  determined 
opposition.  There  were  the  claims  of  Marcy,  Jackson, 
and  Wells  to  be  met  and  combated,  there  was  a  very 
general  fear  among  physicians  that  the  use  of  ether  was 
attended  with  great  danger,  and  among  religious  people 
many  cranks  held  that  as  the  Almighty  had  destined  the 
human  race  to  suffer  pain,  it  was  wrong  for  any  one  to 
attempt  to  change  his  decree.  Its  use  in  obstetrics  was 
especially  condemned,  and  curiously  enough,  no  one  seems 
to  have  thought  of  the  ingenious  argument  subsequently 
used  by  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson  in  defence  of  the  use  of 
chloroform  in  childbirth, — namely,  that  the  Lord  threw 
Adam  into  a  deep  sleep  at  the  time  of  Eve's  birth. 

But  Morton  had  the  gameness  of  a  good  fighter,  and 
in  spite  of  all  discouragements  he  maintained  an  up- 
hill contest  and  persevered  in  trying  to  obtain  what  he 
considered  his  just  rights.  The  United  States  govern- 
ment infringed  its  own  laws  and  used  ether  in  the  army 
and  navy  without  any  regard  to  the  recently  granted 
patent  rights  of  Morton.  As  soon  as  this  fact  became 
known  no  one  hesitated  to  do  the  same  thing,  and  poor 
Morton  found  that  his  imagined  fortune  was  nothing  but 
a  chimera.  He  had  sold  the  right  to  use  ether  to  a  num- 
ber of  persons,  and  had  employed  agents  to  disseminate 
his  discovery  and  to  grant  licenses  for  its  use  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States,    When  his  patent  rights  were 

31 


482  THE   HISTORY   OF   MEDICINE. 

nullified  he  became  involved  in  endless  lawsuits  with  these 
people.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  efforts 
at  obtaining  some  pecuniary  recompense  from  the  govern- 
ment for  all  he  had  undergone.  In  this  project  he  failed. 
Many  scientific  bodies  granted  him  small  sums  of  money, 
and  the  medical  profession  united  in  many  places  in  sub- 
scribing to  testimonials  for  his  benefit.  Dr.  Morton  died 
in  1868  a  disappointed  man.  He  was  made  of  sterner 
stuff  than  Jackson,  who  went  insane,  or  Wells,  who  took 
his  own  life,  but  it  is  said  his  death  was  accelerated  by 
the  disappointments  and  sorrows  he  had  borne. 


APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX   A. 

THE  EXAMINATION  OF  DR.  CHURCH. 

I  REPRINT  Dr.  Church's  manuscript  from  the  Massachusetts  His- 
torical Society's  Collections,  first  series,  vol.  i.  p.  84 : 

"  The  following  account  of  the  examination  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Church  was  written  while  he  was  in  prison,  at  Cambridge,  having 
acknowledged  that  he  was  the  author  of  a  letter  containing  the  state 
of  the  army,  stores,  etc.,  which  was  intercepted  and  thought  to  be 
part  of  a  treacherous  correspondence,  as  it  was  written  to  a  gentle- 
man in  Boston.  The  letter  was  in  cyphers,  it  was  afterwards  pub- 
lished ;    frequent  reference  is  made  to  it  in  this  relation. 

"  On  Friday  October  27,  the  high  Sheriff,  How,  a  messenger  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  at  ten  o'clock,  a.m.  came  to  my  prison, 
accompanied  by  Adjutant  General  Gates,  and  the  several  officers  of 
the  guard,  with  a  summons  from  the  Honorable  House,  commanding 
my  immediate  attendance  at  the  bar  of  the  House.  I  requested  to  be 
indulged  with  an  opportunity  to  change  my  linen,  which  was  indulged 
me  while  the  guard  was  parading,  and  the  officer  of  my  escort, 
waited  upon  the  General,  for  his  directions.  By  the  time  I  had  put 
myself  in  decent  apparel,  I  received  orders  to  proceed :  I  had  pro- 
cured in  this  interim,  a  chaise  from  a  friend,  into  which  the  messen- 
ger entered  with  me;  in  which  manner  we  proceeded,  (To  my  utter 
astonishment,  the  House,  forgetful  of  their  dignity  and  privileges, 
in  a  manner  unprecedented,  suffered  me  to  be  held  in  custody  of  a 
military  guard  during  the  whole  time  of  my  trial  before  the  Hon- 
orable House)  in  the  centre  of  a  guard  of  twenty  men,  with  drum 
and  fife,  from  my  prison  in  Cambridge  to  Watertown,  being  three 
miles.  When  arrived  at  the  Meeting  House  in  Watertown,  where 
the  Assembly  then  sat,  the  messenger  of  the  House  announced  my 
arrival ;  upon  which,  we  received  orders  to  tarry  at  the  door  till 
called  for ;  after  waiting  a  few  minutes,  the  doorkeeper  opening  the 
door,  directed  the  messenger  to  bring  in  the  prisoner.  I  was  then 
ushered  into  the  House,  and  advancing  up  to  the  bar,  which  was 
placed  about  midway  of  the  broad  alley,  I  made  my  obeisance  to 

483 


484  APPENDIX   A. 

the  Honorable  Speaker  of  the  House,  James  Warren,  Esq.  and  to 
the  Members  of  the  Honorable  House  of  Representatives  there  as- 
sembled. The  galleries  being  opened  upon  this  occasion,  were 
thronged  with  a  numerous  collection  of  people  of  all  ranks,  to  attend 
so  novel  and  so  important  a  trial.  The  Honorable  Speaker  then 
began,  by  informing  me,  that  the  Honorable  House  of  Representa- 
tives, having  been  informed,  that  I,  a  member  of  that  House,  was 
put  under  arrest  by  his  Excellency  General  Washington ;  and  their 
jealousy  for  the  privileges  of  the  House  having  been  excited  thereby 
they  had  appointed  a  committee  of  the  Honorable  House,  to  wait 
upon  and  confer  with  his  Excellency  upon  the  subject;  to  which  they 
had  received  the  following  answer.  Here  his  Honor  recited  a 
letter  from  his  Excellency  General  Washington,  attested  by  his  Sec- 
retary, the  Honorable  Joseph  Reed,  Esq.  specifying,  that  at  a  meet- 
ing of  a  General  Court  Martial,  held  at  Cambridge,  on  October 
third.  Present,  his  Excellency  General  George  Washington,  Esq., 
President,  all  the  Major-Generals  and  Brigadier-Generals  of  the 
Army,  and  Adjutant-General  Gates,  Benjamin  Church,  Esq.  Director- 
General  of  the  Hospital  was  summoned  before  them ;  when  a  Court 
of  inquiry  being  held,  it  was  their  unanimous  opinion,  that  said  Ben- 
jamin Church  was  convicted  of  holding  a  criminal  correspondence 
with  the  enemy,  each  member  being  questioned  seriatim  upon  the 
matter.  After  the  Speaker  had  read  the  doings  of  the  Court  Mar- 
tial, the  criminal  letter  as  decyphered  by  Mr.  West  was  produced 
and  read  to  the  House ;  upon  which  the  Honorable  Speaker  observed, 
'  that  the  Honorable  House,  from  a  regard  to  their  own  honor  and 
reputation,  and  to  express  their  abhorrence  of  such  conduct  in  one 
of  their  members,  had  summoned  me  to  the  bar  of  that  House,  to 
make  answers  to  the  charges  exhibited  against  me,  and  to  proceed 
in  such  manner  as  to  vindicate  the  reputation  of  the  House.'  And 
then  holding  out  the  letter,  demanded  '  if  that  was  a  true  copy  of 
the  letter  I  wrote  in  cyphers ;'  to  which  I  replied :  '  May  it  please 
your  Honor  and  the  Honorable  House,  although  I  am  a  member  of 
this  Honorable  House,  or  have  been,  and  have  sustained  some  little 
part  in  the  struggles  of  this  very  respectable  body  for  several  months 
past,  yet  in  the  matter  in  which  I  hold  some  capital  consideration, 
I  profess  myself  to  be  totally  unacquainted  respecting  the  general 
design,  mode  of  process,  and  the  issue.  If  I  might  entreat  the  in- 
dulgence of  the  Honorable  House  I  would  inform  them,  about  a 
month  since,  I  was  taken  by  an  armed  force,  and  have  been  con- 
fined a  close  prisoner  for  twenty-eight  days ;  secluded  by  my  stern 
gaolers  from  the  cheering  eye,  and  consoling  tongue  of  friend  and 
acquaintance,  unless  by  a  special  license,  which  has  been  sparingly 
granted!    and  never  indulged  with  the  aid  and  advice  of  council 


APPENDIX   A.  485 

learned  in  the  law ;  six  days  retained  in  the  most  rigorous  confine- 
ment. I  was  then  led  before  a  (I  was  not  even  there  favored  with 
the  assistance  of  the  Advocate  General.  They  cannot  pretend  it  was 
not  a  trial,  as  they  made  up  their  judgement,  and  determined  I  was 
convicted  of  a  criminal  correspondence,  &c)  general  court  martial 
attended  by  my  guards ;  after  a  scrutiny  novel  and  undecisive, 
which  I  then  apprehended  to  be  a  trial,  I  was  remanded  back  to  my 
prison ;  but  at  my  request,  and  the  indulgence  of  the  General,  at- 
tended only  by  the  officers  of  the  guard.  There  I  have  been  held  in 
the  most  cruel  imprisonment  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  ever  since. 
This  morning,  may  it  please  your  Honors,  at  the  hour  of  10  o'clock, 
without  any  previous  intimation  of  such  design,  without  any  expec- 
tation of  such  an  event,  I  am  summoned,  ex  improviso,  and  immedi- 
ately to  the  bar  of  this  Honorable  House.  Bowed  to  the  dust  by 
infirmity  produced  by  distress,  harassed  and  sickening  with  painful 
suspense,  aggravated  vexations,  rigorous  imprisonment,  and  a  load 
of  sorrows  no  longer  supportable,  am  I  called  upon  to  make  my  de- 
fence. Though  in  a  situation  to  wound  the  bosom  of  compassion, 
and  from  the  eye  of  humanity  to  steal  a  tear,  relying  on  conscious 
integrity,  that  trial  I  wish  not  to  evade :  only  let  me  be  determined, 
Sir,  whether  the  jurisdiction  of  this  House  extends  to  the  whole 
enormity  of  the  transaction  of  which  I  stand  accused ;  whether, 
may  it  please  your  Honor,  this  trial  shall  be  final  and  decisive.'  To 
which,  his  Honor  the  Speaker  made  answer,  '  that  the  Honorable 
House  had  determined  to  examine  this  matter  no  farther  than  as  it 
related  to  a  member  of  that  House.'  To  which  I  rejoined:  'Sorry 
am  I,  Sir,  that  my  plea  for  justice  cannot  be  heard :  I  have  been  led 
from  Caiaphas  to  Herod,  and  from  Herod  to  Pontius  Pilate ;  to 
what  tribunal  shall  I  make  my  final  appeal?  The  House  will  par- 
don me;  but  while  they  appear  so  tremblingly  alive  to  preserve 
their  reputation  unsullied,  they  should  not  forget  the  sinister  influ- 
ence such  precipitation  will  have  at  the  future  trial  of  perhaps  an 
innocent  man;  my  cause  will  be  pre-judged,  and  my  guilt  ascer- 
tained by  the  sanction  of  this  important  body  before  due  inquisition 
is  made.  I  did  hear.  Sir,  that  this  House  had  determined  on  my  (As 
the  general  Court  Martial  had  convicted  me  without  a  trial,  perhaps 
the  Honorable  House  will  think  themselves  warranted  in  their  sen- 
tence of  excommunication)  expulsion;  I  immediately  transmitted 
to  your  Honor  a  formal  resignation  of  my  seat  as  a  member  of  this 
House,  in  some  measure  to  prevent  the  ill  consequences  which  their 
censure  might  produce  hereafter. 

" '  This  Honorable  House  may  possibly  remember  when  Mr. 
Wilkes  was  arraigned  in  the  language  of  Lord  Chatham  "  for  blas- 
pheming his  God  and  libelling  his  King,"  the  House  of  Commons, 


486  APPENDIX   A. 

of  which  he  was  then  a  member,  did  not  evidence  a  premature  dis- 
tress lest  their  immaculate  honors  should  be  tainted;  their  generous 
humanity  induced  them  to  take  no  cognizance  of  the  act,  till  by  due 
process  of  law  he  was  condemned  to  exile.  After  which  they  ex- 
pelled him  from  the  House.'  The  Honorable  Major  Hawley  then 
moved,  that  the  Honorable  Speaker  would  put  the  question  to  me, 
whether  the  letter  then  read  was  a  true  copy  of  the  letter  I  wrote  in 
cyphers.  I  replied  it  was  not  an  exact  copy.  Major  Hawley  then 
urged,  that  perhaps  there  was  some  trifling  literal  variations  which 
made  no  material  difference,  but  requested  that  I  might  be  asked 
whether  the  letter  then  read  did  not  contain  the  true  meaning  and 
import  of  my  letter  in  general.  The  question  was  put  by  the 
Speaker;  to  which  I  answered  as  follows:  'I  perceive  the  Honor- 
able House,  influenced  by  a  partial  purpose  are  determined  upon  an 
immediate  trial.  The  Honorable  gentleman  from  Northampton  per- 
fectly mistakes  me  if  he  supposes,  I  mean  through  chicane  or  eva- 
sion to  interrupt  your  inquisition ;  confirmed  in  assured  innocence, 
I  stand  prepared  for  your  keenest  searchings.  I  now  first  learn, 
may  it  please  your  Honors,  of  my  being  convicted  by  a  general 
Court  Martial  of  a'  (It  appears  to  me  a  strange  perversion  of  lan- 
guage to  assert  that  I  was  convicted  of  a  criminal  correspondence 
with  the  enemy,  when  there  was  no  single  circumstance  to  lead  to 
such  a  conviction  beyond  the  letter  itself  which  carried  in  it  such 
evident  marks  of  fallacy  as  to  destroy  its  own  testimony;  add  to 
this — it  savors  not  a  little  of  Hibernianism  to  construe  the  bare 
writing  a  letter  (which  was  never  conveyed  to  the  person  for  whom 
it  was  wrote)  a  conviction  of  an  actual  criminal  correspondence. 
The  most  severe  construction  that  common  understanding  could 
affix  to  this  writing,  were  it  indisputably  calculated  to  betray  the 
interest  of  the  community,  would  be  an  '  attempt  to  correspond  with 
the  enemy,'  but  the  person  for  whom  the  letter  was  designed,  was 
not  in  office,  was  not  a  soldier;  he  was  my  friend  and  brother.  I 
have  a  great  veneration  for  several  of  the  venerable  personages,  who 
composed  this  Court — but  abstracted  from  the  consideration  of  self, 
I  lament  that  those  worthy  characters  should  have  been  betrayed 
into  so  injurious,  so  unjustifiable  a  construction  of  an  innocent  piece 
of  artifice  to  serve  the  common  cause.  If  I  was  then  convicted,  I 
suppose  my  continued  imprisonment  is  the  penalty  awarded  for  my 
transgression;  if  so,  the  month  is  up,  and  I  ought  to  be  discharged, 
but  of  this  more  hereafter)  '  criminal  correspondence  with  the 
enemy;  what  leads  to  such  a  conviction  is  perfectly  unknown  to 
me;  and  I  presume  it  is  something  singular  that  I  should  first  be 
acquainted  with  the  judgement  of  that  Court  in  my  attendance  upon 
this.     It  has  been  frequently  objected  to  us  by  our  adversaries,  that 


APPENDIX   A.  487 

we  were  struggling  to  establish  a  tyranny  much  more  intolerable 
than  that  we  meant  to  oppose.  Shall  we  justify  the  prediction  of 
our  enemies?  Will  it  be  for  the  honor  or  interest  of  the  com- 
munity that  one  of  your  friends  and  partizans  is  reduced  to  depre- 
cate that  power,  which  by  his  constant  exertions  he  has  been  in 
some  measure  instrumental  in  supporting?  You  profess,  you  are 
contending  for  the  rights  and  liberties  of  British  subjects.  Why 
then  deny  appeal  to  common  law?  Am  I  impertinent  in  claiming 
the  rights  of  Magna  Charter,  and  bill  of  rights ;  have  I  no  title  to 
a  trial  by  jurors,  or  the  benefit  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act?  but  if 
by  a  forced  construction  I  am  deemed  amenable  to  martial  law,  for 
matters  transacted  before  my  appointment  to  the  hospital,  and  before 
the  promulgation  of  those  laws ;  why  are  the  rules  and  articles 
framed  by  the  Continental  Congress,  for  the  government  of  the 
Army,  violated  in  every  letter,  to  accumulate  distresses  upon  me? 
" '  I  have  suffered  already  the  utmost  penalty  annexed  to  the 
breach  of  that  law,  for  which  I  now  stand  committed.  Am  I  to  be 
the  victim  of  the  unsatiable  rage  of  my  enemies?  Am  I  perpetually 
to  be  subjected  to  the  successive  pains  and  penalties  of  every  capri- 
cious power?  It  is  a  maxim  in  that  government  which  I  claim  as  my 
inheritance,  Sir  and  for  which  you  have  expressed  the  highest  vener- 
ation, "  Misera  equidem  est  servitus,  ubi  jus  est  vagum  et  incertum," 
miserable  indeed  is  that  state  of  slavery  where  the  right  of  the 
subject  is  vague  and  uncertain.  But  I  will  not  engross  the  time  of 
this  Honorable  Court.  I  did  say.  Sir,  the  letter,  as  now  read,  is 
not  a  literal  construction  of  that  I  wrote  in  cyphers,  as  far  as  my 
memory  serves,  for  the  letter  was  written  in  great  haste.  I  never 
have  been  favored  with  a  copy  since,  to  consider  of  it ;  and  have 
never  seen  it  till  to-day,  except  the  very  cursory  reading  I  gave  it 
when  before  the  General  Court  Martial,  at  which  time  the  perturba- 
tion of  mind  incidental  to  such  a  situation  naturally  prevented  such 
a  close  attention  as  to  enable  me  to  recollect  the  contents.  I  believe 
in  general  the  sense  is  preserved ;  in  some  instances  it  is  perverted. 
It  has  been  proposed  that  the  letter  be  read  in  paragraphs,  and  that 
I  be  questioned  in  order.  If  it  will  be  agreeable  to  the  Honorable 
House,  I  will  read  the  letter  in  paragraphs :  I  will  candidly  and 
faithfully  execute  my  intention  in  the  course  of  my  reading,  and  to 
convince  the  Honorable  House  that  I  mean  not  to  cavil  at  trifling 
inaccuracies,  I  will  correct  the  erroneous  passages  as  I  proceed,  and 
restore  the  true  reading  on  a  different  sheet.'  This  motion  was 
acceded  to  by  the  Honorable  House,  and  the  copy  of  the  letter  being 
handed  me  by  John  Pitts,  Esq.  I  began :  '  Previous  to  any  remarks 
upon  the  substance  of  this  reprobated  letter  in  my  hand,  by  your 
Honor's  leave,  and  the  indulgence  of  the  Honorable  House,  I  will 


488  APPENDIX   A. 

repeat  the  circumstances  which  led  to,  and  my  motives  for  writing 
the  letter :  sometime  after  my  return  from  Philadelphia,  I  was 
passing  in  my  chaise  toward  Mystick,  I  met  with  a  team  conveying 
household  furniture  toward  Cambridge.  In  the  team,  seated  on  a 
bed  was  a  woman  with  two  children ;  the  woman  accosted  me  by 
name,  asking  me  if  I  did  not  know  her;  her  countenance  was 
familiar  to  me;  I  answered  yes,  and  inquired  when  she  left  Boston; 
she  informed  me  the  day  before,  and  told  me  she  had  a  letter  for 
me  from  Boston,  from  my  brother ;  she  took  a  small  bundle  out  of 
her  pocket,  and  opening  it,  handed  the  letter  to  the  carman  who 
delivered  it  to  me ;  it  was  directed  to  me ;  upon  breaking  the  seal 
I  found  it  written  in  cyphers  and  signed  J.  F.  I  put  it  in  my  pocket 
and  rode  a  few  rods ;  curiosity  induced  me  to  return  back  and 
repair  to  my  lodgings  to  decypher  the  letter  and  acquaint  myself 
with  the  contents ;  this  is  the  letter,'  to  the  speaker,  who  read  it  to 
the  Honorable  House  as  follows, 

" '  Dear  Doctor 

" '  I  have  often  told  you  what  the  dreams  of  your  high  flaming 
sons  would  come  to ;  do  you  forget  my  repeated  cautions  not  to 
make  yourself  too  obnoxious  to  government ;  what  says  the  psalm- 
singer  and  Johnny  Dupe  to  fighting  British  troops  now  ?  They  are 
at  Philadelphia,  I  suppose,  plotting  more  mischief,  where,  I  hear 
your  High  Mightiness  has  been  Ambassador  extraordinary ;  take 
care  of  your  nob,  Mr.  Doctor ;  remember  your  old  friend,  the 
orator,  he  will  preach  no  more  sedition.  Ally  joins  me  in  begging 
you  to  come  to  Boston.  You  may  depend  upon  it  government  is 
determined  to  crush  this  rebellion,  a  large  reinforcement  of  troops 
is  hourly  expected,  when  they  are  determined  to  penetrate  into  the 
country ;  for  God's  sake,  Doctor,  come  to  town  directly ;  I'll  engage  to 
procure  your  pardon ;  your  Sister  is  unhappy  under  the  apprehen- 
sion of  your  being  taken  and  hanged  for  a  rebel,  which  God  grant 
may  not  be  the  case ;  you  may  rely  upon  it  the  Yankees  will  never 
be  a  match  for  the  troops  of  Great  Britain.  The  Yorkers  have  be- 
haved like  damned  fools  in  robbing  the  King's  stores,  as  government 
had  intended  to  have  granted  them  some  exclusive  privileges  in 
trade,  had  they  continued  loyal.  It  will  now  be  a  rendezvous  for 
British  troops.  We  know  well  enough  that  you  are  divided,  your 
people  are  discouraged,  that  you  want  discipline,  artillery,  ammuni- 
tion; and  government  has  taken  effectual  care  that  you  shall  not  be 
supplied  by  other  powers.  I  have  wondered  that  we  have  not  heard 
from  you ;  difference  of  politicks  has  not  cancelled  my  friendship 
for  you.  Let  me  entreat  you  not  to  take  up  arms  against  your 
rightful  King,  as  your  friend  Warren  did,  for  which  he  has  paid 


APPENDIX   A.  489 

dearly.  I  cannot  send  your  sulkey  and  other  matters  you  sent  for ; 
you  may  thank  your  own  people  for  that,  who  first  set  the  example 
by  preventing  anything  from  being  brought  to  them.  I  think  you 
might  have  sent  us  a  bit  of  fresh  pork  now  and  then.  You  see  Han- 
cock and  Adams  are  attainted  already.  If  you  cannot  pass  the  lines, 
you  may  come  in  by  Capt.  Wallace,  via  Rhode  Island,  and  if  you  do 
not  come  immediately  write  me  in  this  character,  and  direct  your 
letter  to  Major  Cane  on  his  Majesty's  service,  and  deliver  it  to 
Capt.  Wallace,  and  it  will  come  safe.  We  have  often  heard  your 
people  intend  to  attack  the  town;  by  God,  I  believe  they  had  such 
a  dose  on  Bunker's  Hill  as  to  cool  their  courage.  Your  Sister  has 
been  for  running  away.  Kitty  has  been  very  sick,  we  wished  you 
to  see  her ;  she  is  now  picking  up.  I  remain  your  sincere  friend  and 
brother, 

"'J.  F. 
'"P.S.     Don't  fail  to  write  me  soon.' 

"  This  letter  being  read  I  proceeded,  '  your  Honor  well  knows 
what  was  our  situation  after  the  action  of  Bunker's  Hill ;  insomuch 
that  it  was  generally  believed,  had  the  British  troops  been  in  a 
condition  to  pursue  their  success,  they  might  have  reached  Cam- 
bridge with  very  little  opposition.  Not  many  days  after  this  we 
had  a  report  circulated  very  generally,  and  as  generally  credited,  of 
the  arrival  of  a  reinforcement  of  5000  British  troops  in  Boston. 
This  Honorable  House  have  not  forgot  the  general  anxiety  excited 
thereby,  together  with  the  consideration  of  our  not  being  in  a 
capacity  to  make  any  tolerable  resistance  from  the  reduced  state 
of  our  magazines ;  was  there  a  man  who  regarded  his  country  who 
would  not  have  sacrificed  his  life  to  efifect  a  tolerable  accommoda- 
tion? my  fears  I  must  confess  were  greatly  excited.  At  this  in- 
terval, a  week  perhaps,  or  ten  days  after  I  had  received  this  letter, 
I  was  confined  to  my  lodgings  by  a  stormy  day,  contemplating  our 
disagreeable  situation.  I  pulled  the  letter  out  of  my  pocket  and 
reading  it ;  the  idea  of  writing  an  answer  to  my  brother  started 
into  my  mind ;  imagining  I  could  improve  the  opportunity  to  effect 
a  happy  purpose  I  immediately  set  about  it.  One  circumstance 
which  was  an  inducement  to  writing  at  that  time  was,  that  a  young 
woman  in  the  same  house  was  to  set  off  for  Newport  the  next 
morning.  I  will  now  proceed  to  consider  the  letter  by  paragraphs, 
after  premising  that  I  have  endeavored  to  adopt  the  air  and  lan- 
guage of  a  tory  throughout,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  confidence, 
and  obtaining  the  intelligence  I  wanted.  "Three  attempts  have  I 
made  to  write  you,  the  last  the  man  was  discovered,  but  fortunately 
my  letter  &c."     May  it  please  your  Honor;    had  I  written  or  at- 


490  APPENDIX   A. 

tempted  to  write  into  Boston;  is  it  not  very  extraordinary  that 
during  my  long  confinement  when  the  very  antipodes  have  been 
alarmed  at  the  transaction,  and  every  tongue  has  been  clamorous 
against  me,  is  it  not  strange,  Sir,  that  no  proof  has  been  exhibited 
against  me  of  such  correspondence,  but  in  this  very  letter,  which 
is  crowded  with  fallacy,  and  obviously  designed  to  deceive?  The 
idea  of  the  man  being  discovered  but  escaped,  "  the  letter  being,  &c." 

was   suggested   by   the  affair  of  Doctor  ,   who   was  taken,   as 

reported,  going  into  Boston,  was  searched  but  no  letter  found.  I 
heard  of  the  matter  upon  my  return  from  Philadelphia,  and  that 
the  letter  was  so  concealed,  which  w'as  idly  reported  to  be  the 
reason  of  its  not  being  detected.  The  other  two  attempts  are  men- 
tioned in  a  subsequent  paragraph,  "  twice  have  I  been  to  Salem,  &c." 
this  idea  was  started  by  the  following  incident;  about  a  week  before 
I  set  out  on  my  journey.  Major  Bigelow  informed  me  he  had  received 
intelligence  that  provisions  and  other  matters  were  conveyed  into 
Boston  by  the  Custom  House  boat  from  Salem,  which  ought  to  be 
immediately  prevented.  I  instantly  laid  the  matter  before  the  Com- 
mittee of  Safety,  and  they  determined  to  take  measures  immediately 
to  prevent  her  passing  into  Boston.  I  solemnly  declare,  Sir,  I  never 
wrote  one  letter  into  Boston  since  I  left  it.  I  solemnly  declare  I 
have  never  been  to  the  town  of  Salem  these  seven  years  past. — "  I 
went  by  the  way  of  Providence  to  visit  Mother."  This  passage  I 
think,  Sir,  confirms  my  declaration  that  the  letter  was  designed  for 
my  brother,  and  not  for  Major  Cane.  I  should  hardly  have  ac- 
quainted the  Major  of  my  going  to  visit  my  Mother,  and  surely  I 
should  not  have  neglected  to  afhx  the  relative  my  to  the  substantive, 
were  not  the  letter  addressed  to  a  relative  character.  The  next 
paragraph  is,  "  the  Committee  for  warlike  stores  ending  at  Bunker's 
Hill !"  Here,  may  it  please  your  Honor,  is  a  capital  omission, 
which  leads  to  a  suspicion  of  my  having  written  before.  In  the 
original  copy,  I  remember  perfectly  well,  after  the  words  "  having 
taken  a  previous  resolution  to  make  the  offer  to  General  Ward" 
were  added  "  for  the  purpose  of  fortifying  Bunker's  Hill."  This 
part  of  the  sentence  was  either  inadvertently  left  out  by  myself  in 
copying  the  letter  into  cyphers,  or  omitted  by  the  person  who  de- 
cyphered  the  letter ;  this  accounts  for  the  references  below  "  as  I 
have  hinted"  and  reconciles  this  passage  with  the  first  paragraph 
that  "  I  had  made  three  attempts  to  write  him  without  success.  The 
true  state  of  the  fact,  is  as  follows :  The  taking  and  fortifying 
Dorchester  hill  was  the  first  object  in  contemplation  when  I  left  the 
camp ;  I  was  sensible  we  had  not  heavy  artillery.  When  at  Provi- 
dence, being  informed  that  they  had  a  considerable  number  there, 
I  applied  to  the  Honorable  Mr.  Ward,  who  resided  then  at  Provi- 


APPENDIX    A.  491 

dence,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  War,  for  such  of  them 
as  they  could  spare.  Mr.  Ward  called  the  Committee  together,  when 
they  generously  granted  them,  and  they  were  sent  down.  The  appli- 
cation was  made  spontaneously  by  me  and  I  wrote  a  letter  of  apology 
to  General  Ward  for  officiousness  in  this  matter.  The  reason  of  my 
covering  this  transaction  in  my  letter  was  a  constant  communication 
between  Newport  and  Boston ;  there  was  no  doubt  but  they  would 
have  accounts  of  this  transaction ;  did  I  not  account  for  it  in  a 
way  to  conceal  my  being  active  in  the  matter,  I  should  have  been 
defeated  in  my  intentions  in  writing.'  Here  I  was  interrupted,  and 
the  House  voted  to  adjourn  to  3  o'clock;  I  was  ordered  to  make 
such  corrections  in  the  interim,  as  to  make  it  correspond  with  the 
original  draught.  I  was  then  by  the  order  of  the  Honorable  House 
conducted  by  my  guard  under  custody  of  the  Messenger  of  the 
House,  where  at  the  public  expense  I  was  regaled  with  half  a  mug 
of  flip  and  the  wing  of  a  chicken,  and  was  then  reconvened  to  the 
House  in  the  manner  I  came  from  thence.  When  arrived  at  the 
door  of  the  House,  the  messenger  comm.unicated  my  arrival ;  he 
was  directed  to  detain  the  prisoner  at  the  door  till  called  for.  I  was 
continued  in  the  cold  on  a  bleak  eminence  for  the  space  of  half 
an  hour,  which  after  a  month's  close  confinement  was  not  very 
eligible,  and  during  the  whole  time  surrounded  by  my  guards  with 
additional  mobility.  Digito  Monstrari,  et  dicier  hie  est,  during 
which  time  a  solemn  vote  was  passed  to  invite  the  Honorable  his 
Majesty's  Council  for  this  Colony  and  sundry  military  gentlemen 
to  be  present  at  the  trial,  and  when  their  Honors  had  taken  their 
seats,  orders  were  given  to  admit  the  prisoner;  I  was  then  intro- 
duced to  the  bar  of  the  House ;  the  Speaker  addressing  himself  to 
me,  informed  me  the  House  were  ready  to  hear  me,  and  ordered 
me  to  proceed ;  I  began  as  follows :  '  May  it  please  your  Honor ; 
to  the  patient  attention,  the  apparent  candor,  and  generous  hu- 
manity of  the  Honorable  House,  I  feel  myself  deeply  indebted.  I 
shall  now  proceed  by  their  continued  indulgence  to  some  further 
observations  on  the  letter,  not  doubting  from  the  approved  justice 
and  benignity  of  this  Honorable  Assembly,  a  full  acquittance  from- 
the  groundless  charges  levelled  against  me.  The  next  paragraph  is 
"  which  together  with  the  cowardice  of  the  clumsy  Col.  Gerrish, 
&c."  to  defeat.  There  is  a  mistake  in  the  word  lucky  in  this  sen- 
tence ;  the  original  was  unlucky,  the  negative  being  marked  by  an 
additional  stroke  on  the  1 ;  here  I  cannot  but  observe,  Sir,  that  not- 
withstanding the  apparent  labor  and  design  throughout  the  whole- 
to  maintain  the  character  of  a  tory,  yet  in  this  paragraph  I  have 
inadvertently  betrayed  myself;  having  mentioned  Col.  Gerrish  and 
Col.  Scamnnon   [Scamnnell]   in  terms  of  reproach  and  indignation 


492 


APPENDIX   A. 


for  not  engaging  the  King's  troops,  after  giving  an  account  in  the 
next  paragraph  of  the  number  killed  and  wounded  in  the  battle  of 
Bunker's  Hill,  which  greatly  falls  short  of  the  truth,  and  an  oblique 
sarcasm  upon  them  for  their  extravagant  calculation  in  this  matter, 
I  proceed  in  several  succeeding  paragraphs  in  the  most  exaggerated 
terms  possible,  to  alarm  him  with  a  very  formidable  account  of 
the  spirit,  supplies,  resources,  industry,  union,  and  resolution  of  the 
Colonies,  all  confirmed  by  ocular  demonstration,  beginning  with 
"  the  people  of  Connecticut"  and  continued  as  far  as  "  are  readily 
exchanged  for  cash."  As  far  as  my  contracted  reading  and  obser- 
vation extends,  may  it  please  your  Honor,  it  has  been  the  policy 
of  those  we  have  heretofore  deemed  our  enemies  to  speak  in  con- 
temptuous terms  of  the  courage,  strength,  union,  and  resources  of 
these  Colonies;  they  have  I  apprehend,  Sir,  constantly  endeavored 
to  discourage  us,  and  encourage  the  enemy  by  remonstrating  in  the 
warmest  manner  the  impossibility  of  our  making  any  effectual  re- 
sistance against  them.  I  am  condemned  for  a  representation  per- 
fectly the  reverse  of  this.  I  would  ask,  Sir,  who  are  your  friends? 
Is  it  criminal  and  injurious  to  you  to  say  we  are  able  and  determined 
to  withstand  the  power  of  Britain ;  is  it  criminal.  Sir,  to  alarm 
them  with  a  parade  of  our  strength  and  preparation,  is  it  bad  policy 
or  a  proof  of  enmity,  when  under  the  most  alarming  apprehensions 
of  instant  ruin  from  their  attack,  by  an  innocent  strategem  to  divert 
them  from  such  a  ruinous  enterprise?  The  next  matter,  most 
strenuously  urged  and  insisted  upon,  is  an  immediate  accommoda- 
tion, or  the  Colonies  are  disjoined  from  Britain  forever:  see  from; 
"  add  to  this — ' "  for  God's  sake  prevent  it  by  a  speedy  accommo- 
dation.'" Here  may  it  please  your  Honor,  the  plot  is  unravelled; 
the  scope  and  design  of  the  letter  is  here  fully  explained ;  to  effect 
the  reconciliation  so  vehemently  urged,  so  repeatedly  recommended. 
For  what  cause  have  I  worn  the  garb  of  a  friend  to  government 
throughout  this  letter,  for  what  cause  have  I  repeated  fallacy  upon 
fallacy;  for  what  cause  have  I  exaggerated  your  force,  but  to 
effect  a  union,  to  disarm  a  parricide,  to  restore  peace  to  my  dis- 
tracted country:  if  this  is  the  work  of  an  enemy  where  are  we  to 
look  for  a  friend?  There  are  two  or  three  passages  which  from 
being  misunderstood  have  been  greatly  exaggerated  which  I  shall 
explain  hereafter.  The  next  paragraph  beginning  at  "  writing  this" 
to  "  discovery,"  are  totally  futile  and  apochryphal.  The  next  pas- 
sage, "  I  am  not  in  place  here,  &c."  is  in  answer  to  his  request  in  his 
letter,  not  to  take  up  arms  against  the  King,  and  to  quiet  the  fears 
of  a  sister,  as  well  as  to  carry  on  the  deception ;  but  even  here 
through  haste  and  inattention  I  have  committed  a  blunder  which 
should  have  been  avoided.     I  have  mentioned  a  readiness  to  take 


APPENDIX   A.  493 

up  with  an  appointment  in  my  own  way,  not  considering  that  in  the 
capacity  of  a  physician  or  surgeon  I  should  be  deemed  aiding  and 
assisting  and  equally  obnoxious  with  those  who  were  actually  in 
arms.  The  concluding  paragraph  contains  particularly  directions 
for  writing  me;  from  hence  I  think  Sir,  the  following  conclusions 
are  fairly  deducible :  first,  my  endeavors  to  appear  so  zealous  a 
friend  to  government,  and  so  seemingly  open  and  communicative 
were  to  engage  him  to  a  full  and  free  communication  on  his  part 
for  purposes  very  obvious ;  again,  Sir,  I  think  it  is  indisputably 
proved  from  this  paragraph,  that  a  previous  correspondence  never 
subsisted  between  us ;  if  this  had  been  the  case.  Sir,  can  it  be  sup- 
posed I  should  be  so  extremely  minute  and  circumstantial  in  point- 
ing out  a  mode  and  channel  of  conveyance,  or  if  we  had  heretofore 
communicated,  should  I  not  have  intimated  my  reasons  for  altering 
the  plan  ?  I  have  urged  labor  and  pains  writing  him,  I  have  urged 
secrecy,  I  have  urged  danger,  merely  to  impress  his  mind  with  my 
being  zealously  attached  to  his  party,  to  secure  full  faith  and  credit 
to  influence  him  to  an  unlimited  confidence  in  his  return  to  me.  If 
in  this  I  have  tran.sgressed  the  motive  will  surely  absolve  me.  Here, 
may  it  please  your  Honor,  concludes  the  letter  innocently  intended, 
however  indiscreetly  executed;  a  letter  which  has  alarmed  the  world, 
wounded  me  in  the  esteem  of  my  friends,  and  glutted  the  malice  of 
my  enemies.  I  shall  now  by  your  Honor's  leave  make  a  few 
observations  on  some  particular  passages  and  then  conclude.  One 
or  two  paragraphs  have  been  urged  as  proofs  of  my  having  carried 
on  a  correspondence  with  this  person  for  some  time  past ;  the 
words,  "as  I  hinted  before  to  you,"  is  one;  this  I  have  explained 
to  you  already;  another  is  "you  know  I  never  deceived  you."  The 
man  I  wrote  to,  had  implicitly  swallowed  the  doctrine  of  Mr.  Hutch- 
inson :  that  all  the  opposition  arose  from  a  small  but  very  busy 
faction :  that  the  Americans  would  never  dare  to  fight  the  British 
troops.  These  sentiments  I  had  constantly  and  warmly  opposed, 
assuring  him,  the  continent  was  engaged  in  the  opposition  to  the 
present  measures,  and  if  blood  should  be  drawn,  he  would  be  con- 
vinced of  the  spirit  and  resolution  of  Americans.  These  facts  he 
assented  to  the  last  time  I  saw  him,  and  acknowledged  I  had  not 
deceived  him ;  which  fully  explains  this  passage.  That  the  letter 
is  totally  fallacious  as  far  as  evidence  is  admissible,  you  cannot 
doubt.  Sir.  The  pains  taken  to  send  letters  is  in  every  instance  in- 
contestably  false ;  the  matter  of  sending  cannon  from  Providence, 
as  there  related,  is  equally  so,  and  probably  calculated  to  effect 
political  purposes.  Why  then,  may  it  please  your  Honor,  shall 
unbounded  credit  be  given  to  that  letter,  which  bears  such  glaring 
marks  of  fallacy  and  design,  and  couched  in   terms  totally  incon- 


494  APPENDIX   A. 

sonant  with  the  conduct  of  my  whole  life ;  against  the  conviction 
arising  from  that  conduct,  against  my  solemn  concurring  circum- 
stances, to  prove  that  it  was  meant  as  a  piece  of  political  deceit  to 
save  my  country :  If  I  had  intended  to  commence  a  spy,  Sir,  why 
did  I  not  communicate  other  matters  than  those  which  were  of 
public  notoriety?  The  affair  of  robbing  the  King's  stores  in  New 
York,  is  adopting  his  very  language ;  the  expedition  against  Canada, 
is  barely  mentioned,  and  introduced  merely  because  it  was  pub- 
lished at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same  papers  with  the  matter 
mentioned  by  himself;  it  was  impossible  but  he  should  have  known 
it,  and  therefore,  had  I  suppressed  it,  it  might  have  excited  a  jeal- 
ousy no  way  favorable  to  my  purpose.  Were  there  not  sundry 
important  matters  then  agitating,  which  I  was  well  acquainted  with ; 
if  I  had  been  an  enemy  why  did  I  not  mention  those  matters,  which 
to  communicate  would  be  to  defeat.  Were  I  that  enemy,  may  it 
please  your  Honor,  which  the  tongue  of  slander  proclaims  me 
to  be ;  should  I  have  made  such  an  ostentatious  parade  of  our 
strength  and  resources ;  should  I  not  rather  have  dwelt  with  a 
malicious  pleasure  on  our  weakness ;  should  I  not  rather  have  ad- 
vised the  enemy  when  to  attack  us  with  assurance  of  success; 
should  I  not  rather  have  encouraged  them  to  prosecute  the  war 
with  vigor,  than  to  desist  from  hostilities  and  propose  terms  of 
accommodation ;  certain  I  am,  Sir,  the  letter  bears  the  impression 
of  an  anxious  friend  to  his  country.  I  have  there  expressed  a  firm 
loyalty  for  the  King,  so  has  this  House  in  every  public  proceeding; 
I  have  told  him,  and  confirmed  it  with  abundant  facts,  that  the 
Americans  were  determined  vigorously  to  defend  their  rights ;  so 
have  you,  gentlemen,  asserted  in  the  strongest  terms.  I  have  recom- 
mended with  all  the  warmth  of  an  honest  zeal  to  put  an  end  to  the 
work  of  death ;  is  not  this  the  universal  wish.  Sir ;  you  will  say 
perhaps,  I  conversed  with  him  in  the  language  of  an  enemy;  he  is 
a  friend  to  government,  so  called,  Sir;  I  wrote  ad  hominem;  I 
wrote  ad  captum.  Where,  may  it  please  your  Honor,  is  the  crime, 
unless  it  be  a  crime  to  pursue  indirect  measures  in  a  time  of 
public  danger  to  prevent  a  public  calamity.  The  manner  in  which 
the  letter  was  written,  the  mode  of  address,  and  conveyance  have 
likewise  been  much  condemned ;  but  if  it  be  considered.  Sir,  that 
this  was  the  mode  prescribed  by  the  person  to  whom  I  wrote,  that 
affected  secrecy,  and  an  ostensible  coincidence  in  sentiment  were 
indispensable,  in  order  to  effect  my  design ;  those  of  candid  and 
liberal  sentiments  will  readily  pardon  me;  I  have  been  used.  Sir, 
to  direct  the  reins  in  my  little  theatre  of  politicks.  I  had  no  sus- 
picion of  evil,  because  I  meant  none.  The  letter  was  intrusted  to 
a  man  I  did  not  know,  whom  I  never  saw.     Two  months  it  lay 


APPENDIX   A.  495 

where  I  could  easily  have  obtained  it.  I  never  was  one  moment 
anxious  about  it;  surely,  may  it  please  your  Honor,  it  will  afford  a 
presumption  of  my  innocent  intention  at  least,  when  the  letter  was 
lodged  in  the  hands  of  a  stranger,  who  resided  in  the  very  centre 
of  my  friends  and  relations,  that  I  never  was  solicitous  enough  to 
write  to  one  of  those  to  secure  it.  I  will  entreat  the  patience  of  the 
Honorable  House  for  a  moment  longer;  when  I  was  in  Boston, 
exposed  to  certain  hazard,  solicited,  persecuted,  and  personally 
obnoxious,  did  I  ever  recede  one  moment  from  the  cause  of  my 
country?  Though  frequently  threatened  and  abused  as  I  passed 
the  streets,  my  house  assaulted,  and  my  windows  broken  in  the 
night;  was  I  ever  intimidated  from  pursuing  with  my  utmost 
vigor  the  interest  of  the  public?  And  now.  Sir,  when  the  Colonies 
are  united,  the  opposition  general  and  formidable,  my  person  secure, 
and  no  other  temptation  to  revolt  but  the  hopes  of  pardon ;  to  be 
thus  influenced  at  this  time  must  betray  a  versatility  bordering 
upon  insanity.  Were  my  small  but  sincere  services  ill  requited; 
were  I  entirely  neglected  in  the  dispensation  of  public  benefits,  I 
might  be  suspected  of  apostacy  from  chagrin  and  disappointment; 
but  the  matter  is  so  totally  different,  that  when  the  establishment 
of  an  hospital  was  in  contemplation,  I  had  every  satisfactory  en- 
couragement that  I  should  be  appointed,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to 
have  my  utmost  wishes  gratified.  The  result  of  this  inquiry,  may 
it  please  your  Honor,  the  determination  of  this  important  body  is 
to  me  of  the  last  importance.  I  solicit  not  life;  that,  I  have  long 
held  in  my  hand,  a  ready,  a  devoted  oblation,  to  my  country;  I 
plead  for  more  than  life,  I  plead,  in  spite  of  one  act  of  pre- 
cipitation, and  even  that  from  a  virtuous  intention,  I  plead  a 
restoration  to  your  confidence  and  esteem,  to  the  esteem  and  con- 
fidence of  my  country  which  I  have  never  forfeited.  If  I  have  in- 
advertently erred,  judge  my  mistakes  with  candor.  The  irregularity 
of  a  measure,  which  they  are  unable  to  account  for,  has  alarmed, 
has  startled  my  friends ;  their  determination  is  suspended,  it  rests 
upon  yours. 

"  '  I  demand  your  confidence,  gentlemen  ;  the  warmest  bosom  here, 
does  not  flame  with  a  brighter  zeal,  for  the  security,  happiness,  and 
liberties  of  America,  than  mine ;  consider,  gentlemen ;  the  adopted 
character  sustained  through  that  letter,  consider  the  apparent  design, 
and  attend  to  the  concluding  urgent  recommendation  of  an  immediate 
accommodation ;  weigh  the  labors  of  an  active  life  against  the  in- 
discretions of  an  hour.  Be  pleased  to  consider,  Sir,  if  the  letter  had 
arrived,  1)Ut  it  never  arrived ;  had  it  not  produced  the  good  in- 
tended, it  could  not  have  produced  any  mischievous  consequences  but 
to  the  guiltless,  though  unfortunate  author  :   Consider,  gentlemen,  what 


1. 


c 


496  APPENDIX    B. 

a  miserable,  what  an  embarrassed  situation  I  shall  be  flung  into,  if 
so  unhappy  as  to  incur  your  censure;  here  I  shall  be  wretched 
indeed;  objected  to  the  sting  of  invective,  pointed  with  savage 
asperity,  doubly  wretched  in  having  no  sanctuary  from  reproach  and 
ruin. 

" '  The  most  obstinate  and  malicious  enemy  to  his  country,  finds 
a  secure  asylum  in  that  retreat  where  I  have  sacrificed  my  fortune 
for  you,  and  where  I  am  effectually  barred  by  my  incessant  exer- 
tions in  your  service. 

"'To  your  wisdom,  gentlemen,  to  your  justice,  to  your  tender- 
ness I  cheerfully  submit  my  fate.'  Here  I  was  questioned  respecting 
sundry  matters  which  were  uttered  during  my  defence  by  sundry 
members  of  the  Honorable  House,  and  was  directed  to  withdraw 
under  the  conduct  of  the  guard. 

"  Previous  to  my  departure  from  the  House,  I  addressed  myself 
to  the  Honorable  Speaker,  informing  the  House,  I  desired  to  be 
admitted  to  bail,  otherwise  I  was  fearful  of  falling  a  martyr  to  the 
severities  of  my  imprisonment,  and  then  withdrew. 

"  From  my  prison  in  Cambridge,  November  i,  1775. 

"Attest,  B.  C.  JuN." 


APPENDIX    B. 

DR.   JOHN    morgan's   MEMORIAL. 

To  His  Excellency,  General  Washington,  Commander-in-Chief 
OF  the  American  Army. 

The  Memorial  and  Representation  of  Doctor  John  Morgan,  respect- 
ing his  Care  of  the  Sick,  and  Manner  of  conducting  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  General  Hospital  committed  to  his  Care. 

Sir, 

When  I  was  called  by  the  choice  of  my  country,  to  the  station 
of  Director-General  of  the  hospital  and  Physician  in  Chief,  I  left  a 
respectable  and  lucrative  practice  against  the  judgement  of  some 
considerable  persons  in  my  native  city,  who,  from  regard  to  me, 
and  what  they  conceived  to  be  my  interests,  endeavored  in  vain 
to  dissuade  me  from  accepting  the  post,  truly  honorable  as  they 
allowed  it  to  be.  Their  advice  had  no  influence  over  me.  With- 
out hesitation,  I  sacrificed  it,  with  every  future  prospect  of  better 
expectations  from  continuing  with  them  to  the  satisfaction  of 
serving  my  country.  At  The  Head  Of  The  Hospital,  In  The  Army, 
Under  Your  Excellency's  Immediate  Command. 


APPENDIX    B.  497 

Having  had  some  experience,  in  times  past,  of  the  nature  of  the 
department,  I  have,  ever  since  I  took  charge  of  it,  made  it  my 
constant  study,  to  make  myself  master  of  the  subject,  and  to  acquire 
a  thorough  insight  into  it.  With  what  success,  I  do  not  think  can 
be  judged  of,  from  the  outside  appearances  of  last  campaign,  and 
the  causes  which  prevented  the  several  regulations  I  proposed,  from 
taking  place  agreeably  to  my  wishes.  It  would  be  tedious  to 
enumerate  them  all ;  yet  it  cannot  be  amiss  to  point  at  some  of  the 
principal : 

The  first  of  these  which  I  shall  mention  was  the  want  of  suffi- 
cient time  and  opportunity  before  the  opening  of  the  campaign  to 
have  all  the  regimental  Surgeons  properly  furnished  by  Congress, 
and  made  acquainted  with  their  duty,  of  which  many  of  them  were 
very  ignorant,  and  the  error  of  having  them  look  to  the  General 
Hospital  for  those  supplies  of  medicines  and  instruments,  &c  which 
it  would  have  been  better  to  have  sent  to  them  by  Continental  Drug- 
gists, who  might  have  the  means  of  collecting  and  preparing  every 
article  in  a  suitable  manner,  which  it  is  vain  to  attempt  in  a  moving 
army.  Another  cause  was  the  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of  certain 
hospital  officers  and  assistants,  and  the  means  of  procuring  them 
when  allowed  by  Congress,  which  was  late,  as  Commissaries,  Store- 
keepers, Stewards,  Wardmasters,  &c.  (b)  This  difficulty  was  in- 
creased from  the  nature  of  the  campaign,  in  which,  contrary  to 
expectation,  it  became  necessary,  to  shift  the  places  of  the  General 
hospital  frequently,  and  to  branch  it  out  in  such  a  number  of  hos- 
pitals widely  distant  from  each  other,  (c)  To  these  may  be  added 
first  the  want  of  sufficient  help  from  other  departments,  which  it 
was  impossible  to  remedy  in  the  state  our  army  then  was.(d)  2dly. 
The  neglect  of  the  regimental  Surgeons,  to  report  the  sick  of  their 
regiments  in  season,  and  in  an  orderly  manner  to  the  General  hos- 
pital, though  often  required  in  General  orders,  Resolves  of  Congress, 
and  otherwise,  to  do  it;(e)  and  sometimes  keeping  back  their  sick 
from  entering  into  it  at  all,  or  till  they  became  very  numerous; 
then  discharging  them  all  at  once  into  the  General  hospital,  at  the 
time  of  an  engagement  with  the  enemy,  and  when  the  attention  of 
the  whole  body  of  hospital  Surgeons  was  necessary  to  take  care  of 
the  wounded.  And  lastly,  the  frequent  and  long  absence  of  the 
regimental  Surgeons  from  their  regiments,  who  instead  of  sending 
the  sick,  as  they  ought  to  have  done,  to  the  General  hospital,  had 
them  conveyed  to  some  remote  regimental  hospitals,  where  they 
neither  had,  nor  could  obtain  suitable  necessaries  for  their  provision 
and  care. (f)  On  my  first  arrival  at  Cambridge,  I  set  about  to  estab- 
lish rules  for  the  General  hospital  Surgeons.  I  had  heard  of  many 
abuses  being  practised  by  enormous  drafts  of  expensive  stores  from 

32 


498  APPENDIX   B. 

the  General  hospital,  to  which,  with  your  Excellency's  approbation, 
to  whom  I  made  report  thereof,  I  put  a  stop  and  limited  the  demands 
of  regimental  Surgeons  to  such  articles,  as  Indian  meal,  oatmeal, 
rice,  barley,  molasses,  and  the  like,  and  required  that  such  sick  as 
wanted  others,  should  be  sent  to  the  General  hospital,  that  these 
things  might  be  dispensed  out  under  my  own  direction,  (g)  The 
next  reformation  I  attempted  was  to  call  upon  all  the  Mates  in  the 
hospital  to  undergo  an  examination  of  their  abilities,  in  order  to 
select  from  the  number  those  who  were  best  qualified  for  the  service. 
This  was  followed  by  your  Excellency's  orders,  to  see  that  all  the 
regimental  Surgeons  and  Mates  should  pass  a  like  examination.  I 
began  the  task,  but  the  movements  of  the  army,  the  aversion  of  Sur- 
geons to  undergo  these  examinations,  from  which  too  they  were  often 
screened  by  their  Colonels,  and  by  pretence  of  sickness,  &c  and  the 
increasing  business  on  hand  prevented  my  proceeding  far  in  it.  (h) 

When  the  army  lay  before  Boston,  the  smallpox  frequently  made 
its  appearance  in  it,  owing  to  the  number  of  persons  who  came  out 
of  that  city  with  the  infection  upon  them,  which  endangered  the 
spreading  of  the  contagion  amongst  our  troops.  By  the  establish- 
ment of  the  smallpox  hospital  in  a  suitable  place,  with  proper  persons 
to  take  care  of  the  sick,  and  the  precaution  of  sending  all  infected 
persons  to  it,  so  soon  as  known  to  have  the  disease,  and  to  cut  ofif  all 
town  communcation  betwixt  it  and  the  troops,  the  army  was  pre- 
served from  ever  receiving  any  injury  from  it.  When  the  troops 
marched  from  Cambridge  for  New  York,  all  the  sick  were  left 
behind  in  the  General  hospital,  amounting  to  upwards  of  three  hun- 
dred men.  In  less  than  six  weeks,  during  which  time  but  few  died, 
I  was  able  to  discharge  the  hospital  of  every  man,  to  settle  and  pay 
every  account,  insomuch  as  never  to  have  had  any  further  demands 
from  that  quarter.  During  this  time,  with  little  or  no  expense  to 
the  public  but  for  package  and  transportation,  I  collected  medicines, 
furniture  and  hospital  stores,  worth  many  thousand  pounds,  and 
sent  them  on  to  New  York.  The  like  quantity,  I  apprehend,  could 
not  be  procured  in  any  part  of  America.  Nor  were  they  obtained 
for  the  use  of  the  army,  without  much  trouble  and  assiduity,  owing 
to  strong  opposition  that  was  made  to  prevent  it.  (k)  Besides  these, 
I  was  able,  by  means  of  the  subaltern  officers  in  the  hospital,  some 
of  whom  I  employed  continually  at  the  work,  likewise  to  collect  to 
the  amount  of  near  two  thousand  rugs  and  blankets,  near  as  many 
bedsacks  and  pillows,  which  were  taken  up  from  docks,  and  were 
gathered  from  hospitals  and  barracks,  &c.  These  being  washed  and 
aired  served  the  last  campaign  when  none  others  could  be  got,  and 
many  of  them  are  yet  in  good  preservation.  At  New  York  I  col- 
lected some  hundred  sheets,  fracture  boxes,  and  other  useful  articles. 


APPENDIX    B.  499 

It  may  be  thought  perhaps  that  I  place  a  higher  value  upon  these 
acquisitions  than  they  merit;  be  that  as  it  may  I  am  persuaded 
the  like  could  not  be  obtained  now  for  much  less  than  thirty  thou- 
sand dollars,  which  is  equal  to  the  whole  amount  of  what  I  have  ever 
drawn  or  expended  for  the  General  hospital,  in  the  space  of  a 
twelve-month,  including  the  pay  of  all  the  officers  and  all  the  hos- 
pital expenses  of  every  kind,  which  have  fallen  within  my  depart- 
ment to  settle,  and  for  the  faithful  expenditure  of  the  same,  I  am 
ready  to  produce  my  accounts,  receipts,  and  vouchers,  whenever 
called  upon  for  a  settlement.  Yet  the  General  hospital  has  had  the 
constant  charge  of  a  num.ber  from  two  to  three  hundred  to  a  thou- 
sand sick  and  upwards  to  provide  for  and  attend.  Nor  have  any 
articles  of  the  public  stores  been  embezzled  or  mis-applied,  nor  the 
sick  suffered  in  the  General  hospital  for  want  of  anything  I  thought 
them  entitled  to  draw  from  the  hospital,  and  that  I  could  procure 
for  them. 

The  medicines  and  stores  provided  as  above  mentioned  have  been 
appropriated  with  equal  faithfulness  and  strict  economy  to  the  pur- 
poses of  the  General  hospital ;  or  issued  from  thence  to  regimental 
Surgeons,  or  remain  on  hand,  subject  to  your  Excellency's  order.  I 
have  never  burdened  the  Quarter-Master  General's  department  with 
any  unnecessary  demand  from  thence.  And  as  to  the  Commissary- 
General,  he  will  do  me  justice,  as  he  has  often  declared  himself  on 
that  head,  that  my  drafts  were  within  the  most  reasonable  bounds. 
I  am  persuaded  that  of  the  sick  who  have  been  drawn  for  in  the 
General  hospital,  if  none  of  them  have  been  drawn  for  at  the  same 
time  with  the  well  men  in  their  regiments,  the  stoppage  of  their 
rations  will  go  a  great  way  towards  paying  the  whole  of  the  ex- 
penses that  the  hospital  has  been  put  to,  on  their  account,  for  pro- 
vision and  stores  of  whatever  kind.  (1) 

In  a  conference  I  had  with  your  Excellency  at  Cambridge,  on  the 
subject  of  hospital  expenses,  you  told  me,  and  I  took  it  as  a  hint 
of  caution  and  advice  to  observe  the  strictest  economy  in  my  depart- 
ment (from  which  I  have  never  deviated)  that  you  were  fearful 
the  expenses  of  the  General  hospital  would  exceed  the  estimate  that 
had  been  made  of  them,  by  a  person  of  experience  in  General  hos- 
pital matters.  If  I  rightly  recollect  your  Excellency  thought  the  sum 
mentioned  to  be  ten  thousand  pounds  sterling  per  annum.  I  was 
surprised,  and  concluded  the  gentleman  was  mistaken ;  I  resolved, 
however,  if  possible,  to  employ  such  strict  economy  in  the  depart- 
ment, as  to  keep  within  those  bounds,  yet  was  fearful  it  could  not 
be  accomplished,  on  account  of  the  advanced  price  of  every  article 
of  living  and  hospital  stores.  Desirous  of  knowing  what  were  the 
principles  on  which  he  founded  the  calculation,  I  wrote  to  the  per- 


500  APPENDIX   B. 

son  that  was  mentioned,  on  the  subject,  in  answer  to  which  he  in- 
formed me,  that  the  estimate,  he  had  given  in  to  General  Gates  was 
ten  thousand  pounds  sterling,  for  every  ten  thousand  men,  for  six 
months,  and  so  in  proportion,  which  is  equal  to  £40,000  ster.  per 
annum  for  20,000,  the  number  then  kept  on  foot. 

At  the  same  time,  as  one  qualified  to  give  me  full  information, 
I  wrote  to  him  with  a  view  to  clear  up  all  doubts,  or  to  confirm  my 
sentiments  in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  regimental  Sur- 
geons were  supplied  in  the  British  service,  with  medicines  and  in- 
struments, and  to  know  what  right  they  had  to  draw  stores  from 
the  General  hospital ;  to  which  his  answer  corresponded  with  the 
opinion  I  had  ever  entertained  of  the  nature  of  the  service.  Till 
Congress,  or  your  Excellency,  should  give  orders  for  a  different 
mode  to  be  pursued,  I  considered  myself  to  be  bound  in  duty  to  keep 
\the  British  establishment  constantly  in  my  eye,  as  a  directory, 
making  allowance  for  the  nature  and  difference  of  the  service,  (m) 

Moreover,  I  was  afterwards  favored  with  your  Excellency's 
opinion  on  the  subject,  contained  in  those  observations  you  was 
pleased  to  bestow  on  the  plan  of  regulations,  which  by  your  com- 
mand I  sketched  out,  for  getting  again  into  a  proper  train,  after  we 
had,  by  one  accident  or  another,  been  forced  from  the  original 
plan  of  a  General  hospital,  and  got  into  confusion,  on  account  of  the 
opposition  some  of  the  resolves  of  Congress  of  July  17  last,  met 
with  from  many  of  the  regimental  Surgeons,  and  the  impracticability 
of  complying  with  others  of  them,  in  the  situation  we  were  then 
placed.  Your  words  were,  "  What  is  the  practice  in  this  case  in  the 
British  army?  why  should  we  think  of  improving  upon  their  system, 
founded  on  long  experience?" 

Upon  first  entering  upon  the  duties  of  my  station,  apprehending 
that  the  General  hospital  was  not  amply  supplied,  as  I  could  wish, 
with  bandages,  old  linen  and  other  implements  of  surgery,  that 
would  be  required,  in  case  of  an  action,  I  set  myself  to  supply  those 
wants  immediately,  which  I  effected  with  little  expense  of  money, 
but  with  great  labor,  in  which  I  had  all  possible  assistance  from  the 
hospital  Surgeons  and  Mates :  I  collected  large  quantities  of  old 
linen,  lint  and  sheets,  made  up  six  thousand  bandages,  and  six 
hundred  tourniquets,  for  the  use  of  the  General  hospital,  &c,  which, 
though  sufficient  for  a  present  exigency,  I  did  not  think  more  than 
might  be  wanted  for  six  hospitals,  which  I  managed  at  that  time. 

Being  then  desirous  of  knowing  how  the  regimental  Surgeons 
were  supplied,  I  proposed  the  calling  upon  them  in  general  orders, 
for  that  purpose,  and  with  a  view  to  learn  whether  their  assistance 
could  be  depended  upon  in  the  field,  and  whether  they  were  properly 
furnished   with   medicines.     Except  Mr.   Magaw,    Surgeon   of   Col. 


APPENDIX    B.  501 

Thomson's  regiment,  and  a  few  others,  they  had  scarcely  the 
shadow  of  a  supply — I  gave  in  a  report  thereof,  witn  a  weekly 
return  of  the  sick ;  I  also  stated  to  your  Excellency  what  I  conceived 
to  be  my  duty,  and  that  it  was  limited  to  the  care  of  the  sick  in  the 
General  hospital.  This  enquiry  into  the  wants  of  the  regimental 
Surgeons,  made  them  turn  as  it  were  on  the  General  hospital.  They 
wished  to  furnish  themselves  from  it,  with  those  articles  of  dressings, 
which  the  hospital  Surgeons  had  collected,  and  made  up  for  them- 
selves, which  those  gentlemen  thought  an  unreasonable  demand. 
Farther  the  regimental  Surgeons  wanted,  contrary  to  all  usage,  to 
draw  from  the  General  hospital,  all  they  should  call  for,  in  the  way 
of  stores,  whether  diaetetic  or  medicinal,  for  the  use  of  the  sick  re- 
tained under  their  care,  in  regimental  hospitals,  and  to  be  provided 
by  me  with  instruments  and  bandages,  or  to  fix  the  odium  of  their 
insufficiency  at  my  door.  I  therefore  recommended  in  my  report 
the  necessity  of  providing  (not  in  the  army  or  General  hospital 
but  from  Continental  Druggists  for  that  was  what  I  intended) 
"  a  capital  set  of  medicines,  instruments,  &c.  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  advised  that  portable  chests  should  be  furnished  from  [for] 
every  regiment  for  a  whole  year,  at  once,  and  each  chest  be  provided 
with  instruments  and  bandages."  I  did  not  expect,  weak-handed  as 
I  was,  with  respect  to  officers  and  assistants  in  the  General  hospital, 
from  its  very  establishment  by  Congress,  that  this  task  would  be 
enjoined  on  me,  I  thought  my  duty  pointed  out  by  that  establishment, 
as  much  as  I  could  well  execute,  and  which  only  related  to  the 
General  hospital  itself;  although  with  an  earnest  desire  of  pro- 
moting the  good  of  the  service,  I  early  pointed  out  the  wants  of  the 
regimental  Surgeons,  and  in  time  for  having  them  supplied  with 
necessaries,  after  the  manner  that  has  always  been  practised  in  the 
British  army,  I  wrote  to  inform  your  Excellency,  "  That  my  com- 
mission only  extended  to  the  care  of  the  General  Hospital ;  the  plan 
of  establishment  by  Congress,  of  July  28,  1775.  The  list,  number 
and  arrangements  of  officers,  and  my  instructions  from  Congress, 
which  were  wholly  silent  concerning  regiments,  their  Surgeons  or 
supplies  confirmed  this  opinion,"  not  to  say  anything  of  the  low 
estimate,  which  I  had  understood  was  formed  for  the  support  of 
the  General  hospital.  I  then  gave  it  as  my  opinion  grounded  on  the 
custom  of  the  British  army,  of  supplying  the  medicine  chests  by 
stoppages,  "  That  if  the  sick,  remaining  in  regiments,  were  to  be 
supplied  at  a  public  expense  (and  not  by  stoppages)  that  expense 
ought  to  be  made  a  regimental  charge,  and  might  be  delivered  in 
with  an  abstract  of  the  regiment,  (or  any  other  better  way,)  that 
the  General  hospital,  having  nothing  to  do  with  the  affair  from  its 
very  nature,  ought  not  to  be  burdened  with  their  supplies ;    for  then, 


502  APPENDIX    B. 

on  the  number  of  sick  admitted  in  the  General  hospital  being  known, 
the  expense  necessary  for  their  support  could,  after  a  while,  be 
better  estimated  from  experience." 

I  then  called  on  your  Excellency,  in  the  same  letter,  "  for  instruc- 
tions what  to  do  ?"  I  informed  you  "  that  the  nature  and  design  of 
the  General  hospital,  being  little  understood,  and  the  nature  of  my 
duty  so  much  mistaken,  both  by  the  regimental  Surgeons  and 
officers,  and  many  things  expected  from  me,  impossible  to  be  com- 
plied with,  I  apprehended  it  to  be  absolutely  necessary  that  certain 
regulations  should  be  fixed  upon,  to  ascertain  my  duty,  and  those 
of  the  Surgeons  and  officers  under  me,  as  well  as  those  of  the  regi- 
mental Surgeons,  which  all  ought  to  know,  and  not  hospital  and 
regimental  Surgeons  only,  but  in  general,  every  officer  of  any  rank 
in  the  army,  to  prevent  interference  and  mistakes." — 

Besides  giving  this  information,  in  order  to  bring  about  a 
farther  explanation  of  the  matter,  and  with  a  view  to  accomplish  the 
end  proposed  by  it ;  when  I  came  to  New  York,  I  laid  a  plan  before 
the  regimental  Surgeons,  to  ascertain  their  duty,  with  a  draft  for  a 
memorial  to  be  laid  by  them  before  Congress  stating  their  present 
difficulties,  of  which  they  approved,  and  I  wrote  pressingly  myself 
on  the  subject  to  the  Doctors  Committee  of  Congress;  and  at  vari- 
ous other  times  I  have  delivered  my  opinion  on  the  duties  of  regi- 
mental Surgeons,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  general  orders,  particu- 
larly of  July  3rd,  and  July  28th,  1776.  But  although  the  sentiments 
contained  in  those  orders  were  enjoined  by  your  Excellency  to  be 
made  the  rule  of  conduct,  and  I  think  they  were  well  calculated 
to  answer  the  purpose,  yet  they  were  little  regarded  by  many  of  the 
regimental  Surgeons,  and  openly  opposed  by  others,  (n) 

With  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  I  came  to  have  the  charge 
of  supplying  all  the  regimental  Surgeons  with  medicine  chests,  &c. 
contrary  to  what  I  had  always  conceived  to  be  the  proper  method, 
or  usual  for  a  General  hospital,  as  I  had  always  declared,  I  beg 
leave  to  remark,  that  the  surrender  of  Boston  having  put  us  in 
possession  of  a  large,  though  unassorted  stock  of  medicines,  hos- 
pital furniture,  &c.  your  Excellency  was  pleased  to  order  me,  by  the 
Quarter-Master-General,  to  put  up  medicine  chests  for  five  regi- 
ments, at  Boston,  Salem  and  Marblehead,  &c.  about  the  time  the  rest 
of  the  army  moved  to  New  York.  This  I  cannot  but  look  upon  as 
the  beginning  of  all  my  subsequent  difficulties.  When  I  arrived 
afterwards  at  New  York,  your  Excellency  was  at  Philadelphia,  and 
I  was  repeatedly  called  upon  by  letters,  and  in  the  way  of  personal 
applications  from  regimental  Surgeons  and  officers,  to  furnish  several 
regiments  that  were  at  New  York,  and  others  gone  to  Canada,  with 
medicine  chests.     My  hope  and  expectations  had  been,  that  out  of 


APPENDIX    B.  503 

the  whole  stock  I  had  collected,  I  might  be  permitted  to  take  such 
as  were  wanted  for  the  General  hospital,  and  then  to  deliver  the 
remainder  to  any  Commissary  or  Continental  Druggist,  appointed 
by  Congress  or  bj'  your  Excellency,  to  receive  it,  for  the  use  of  the 
public,  and  particularly  for  furnishing  regimental  Surgeons.  I  received 
several  intimations  at  this  time,  from  different  persons,  that  Congress 
expected  from  me  to  supply  the  northern  army  with  medicines  and 
hospital  stores.  Having  received  no  orders,  however,  for  that  pur- 
pose and  the  campaign  then  opening,  I  thought  it  highly  expedient 
to  receive  clear  instructions  on  that  head,  and  applied  for  leave  to 
go  to  Philadelphia,  to  have  a  conference  with  some  members  of  Con- 
gress to  know  what  I  had  to  depend  upon.  Your  Excellency  gave 
me  leave  of  absence  for  ten  days,  and  although  it  proved  too  short 
a  time  to  settle  the  business  of  my  department,  yet  I  returned  punc- 
tually on  the  day  appointed. 

Before  my  arrival  at  Philadelphia,  I  learned  that  the  Congress 
had  purchased  a  valuable  stock  of  medicines,  which  were  in  the 
hands  of  some  druggists  in  town,  out  of  which  (on  a  supposition 
I  imagine  that  they  had  more  than  would  be  wanted  for  public  use) 
such  considerable  sales  had  been  made  by  permission  of  Congress, 
and  large  quantities  sent  to  the  Southward,  that 'it  appeared  to  me 
there  was  danger,  from  the  great  reduction  that  was  made  in  it 
already,  lest  the  best  collection  of  medicines  I  had  ever  seen  in 
America  for  an  army,  might  slip  out  of  the  power  of  Congress 
from  such  sale,  &c.  which  might  prove  a  loss  they  might  not  have 
it  in  their  power  to  retrieve  in  the  whole  year,  (o)  I  therefore  pre- 
sumed to  caution  the  committee  against  it.  Upon  conferring  with 
them  on  the  subject,  as  I  had,  though  contrary  to  usage,  been 
obliged  to  put  up  medicine  chests  for  some  regiments,  I  under- 
took, if  I  might  be  allowed  such  a  share  of  what  was  on  hand  as 
might  be  wanting  from  time  to  time  to  assort  those  in  my  possession, 
to  use  my  best  endeavors  to  supply  regimental  chests  to  the  regi- 
ments at  New  York  under  your  Excellency's  command,  for  one 
campaign  by  way  of  trial ;  for  I  did  not  want  to  shrink  from  any 
labor,  assigned  me,  whether  my  proper  duty  or  not,  by  which  I 
might  serve  my  country,  as  far  as  it  was  practicable  for  me  to  do  it. 

I  did  not  conceive  from  all  I  was  able  to  learn  that  there  would 
be  more  than  forty  or  fifty  regiments  assembled  at  New  York ; 
nor  did  I  suppose  that  one  half  of  those  would  come  destitute  of 
medicines  and  chirurgical  apparatus,  when  I  heard  that  the  South- 
ward regiments  were  supplied  by  the  Continental  Druggists;  and  I 
had  taken  pains  at  Cambridge,  occasionally  to  acquaint  General 
officers,  Commanders  of  regiments  and  regimental  Surgeons,  with 
my   idea  that  they   were  not   to   look   to  the   General   hospital    for 


504  APPENDIX    B. 

those  supplies,  but  have  their  regiments  furnished,  where  raised, 
as  being  the  most  easy  and  natural  method ;  nor  did  I  expect  such 
numerous  detachments  of  militia,  all  of  which  came  unprovided,  and 
looked  to  me  for  supplies  of  every  thing  they  wanted,  not  chusing 
to  send  their  sick  to  be  under  the  care  of  the  Surgeons  of  the  hos- 
pital. I  supplied  from  40  to  50  regiments  with  medicine  chests  by 
the  end  of  August,  besides  all  the  branches  of  the  General  hospital 
at  New  York,  in  the  bowery  and  neighborhood,  and  at  Long- 
Island,  which  reduced  many  of  our  capital  articles  to  an  insufficiency 
for  the  General  hospital  for  the  remaining  part  of  the  campaign. 
And  these  I  was  obliged  to  collect  elsewhere  as  well  as  I  could ;  for 
although  there  was  a  great  show  of  medicines  and  furniture  left,  yet 
many  of  the  principal  medicines  being  exhausted,  and  other  articles 
not  being  duly  prepared,  nor  such  as  were  usually  called  for  or 
wanted  for  regimental  use,  that  show  availed  but  little.  To  give 
what  were  at  hand  and  could  be  spared  from  hospital  use,  which 
the  regimental  Surgeons  would  neither  accept  of  nor  be  answerable 
for,  would  be,  as  scripture  expresses  it,  to  give  one  that  asked  for 
bread,  a  stone;    or  for  an  egg,  a  serpent. 

It  was  by  your  Excellency's  command  that  I  shipped  off  part 
of  the  stores  as  I  did,  to  Stamford,  to  prevent  the  whole  being  lost, 
in  case  the  enemy  should  possess  themselves  of  New  York.  From 
thence  they  were  sent  into  the  country,  as  some  frigates  had  got 
into  the  Sound,  and  it  was  easy  to  land  near  Stamford,  whereby  the 
stores  might  be  destroyed,  (p)  It  was  by  a  like  command  that  I 
visited  Tappan,  Haverstraw,  and  Orange,  to  look  out  for  a  suitable 
place  for  a  General  hospital ;  and  by  your  orders,  in  writing,  that 
I  went  over  to  Newark  a  day  or  two  before  the  evacuation  of  New 
York,  to  make  provision  for  about  a  thousand  sick,  including  those 
wounded  at  the  last  action  on  Long-Island,  who  were  there  com- 
mitted to  the  care  of  Doctors  Foster  and  Burnet,  Surgeons  in  the 
General  hospital,  with  seven  or  eight  Mates  to  take  care  of  them,  (q) 

Part  of  the  medicines  remaining  at  New  York,  were  ordered  over 
by  the  Adjutant-General,  to  whose  personal  activity  and  the  as- 
sistance he  gave  to  the  Surgeons,  it  is  owing,  that  they  were  saved. 
The  most  valuable  part,  however,  was  still  left  in  New- York,  when 
the  enemy  had  affected  a  landing,  drawn  a  line  across  the  island, 
and  were  supposed  to  be  then  entering  New- York. (r) 

At  this  critical  juncture,  I  went  over  with  some  of  the  hospital 
officers,  and  brought  off  all  that  had  been  left,  in  a  pettiauger,  which 
was  filled  therewith.  I  had  ordered  two  chests,  for  hospital  use, 
to  be  put  up  and  sent  to  Kingsbridge,  it  being  impossible  to  get 
more  up  there,  in  a  retreat. 

The   sick  and  wounded  above  mentioned  were  landed  in  haste 


APPENDIX    B.  505 

and  disorder,  at  Hobuck,  Wehock,  &c.  Some  of  our  Mates  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  many  of  the  Nurses  and  Waiters  fled, 
and  the  militia  ran  off  and  impressed  every  waggon  they  could 
find  in  the  neighborhood.  It  therefore  required  some  days  to  get 
on  all  the  sick  and  wounded,  through  many  difficulties,  from  the 
fright  of  the  inhabitants,  and  their  reluctance  to  admit  of  the  hos- 
pitals being  stationed  at  that  place.  I  had  provisions  to  collect,  a 
Commissary  and  Ward-Master  to  seek,  and  Nurses  and  Waiters 
to  procure,  with  every  thing  necessary  for  the  comfortable  accom- 
modation of  the  sick  and  wounded.  I  had  but  little  assistance  enough 
to  perform  this  task,  your  Excellency  having  enjoined  me  to  leave 
the  most  considerable  number  of  Surgeons  and  Mates  at  York 
Island,  in  case  of  need.  I  made  all  possible  haste,  however,  to  put 
the  hospitals  at  New-Ark  on  a  safe  footing,  which  I  accomplished 
in  about  ten  days,  and  then  returned  to  head-quarters. 

After  this,  judge,  Sir,  of  my  distress,  to  find  how  much  this 
affair  had  been  misrepresented  to  your  Excellency,  as  I  perceived 
it  was  by  a  letter  just  written  to  me  by  your  Aide-de-Camp,  setting 
forth  the  miserable  situation  to  which  the  sick  were  reduced,  and 
the  clamor  for  want  of  medicines,  absolutely  insisting  on  an  imme- 
diate and  sufficient  supply,  for  "  whilst  I  was  reserving  the  medicines 
for  cases  of  emergency,  the  sick  were  dying  in  numbers  for  want  of 
a  necessary  supply."  I  had  just  sent  to  an  eminent  private  Drug- 
gist, as  well  as  to  Mr.  William  Smith,  the  Continental  Druggist,  at 
Philadelphia,  praying  for  a  supply  of  such  articles  as  either  I  had 
not,  or  could  not  be  got  at,  enclosing  each  of  them  a  list  for  the 
purpose. (s)  Instead  of  ten  pounds  of  Tartar  Emetic,  I  sent  for, 
four  ounces  were  all  I  could  obtain  for  the  whole  army.  I  prevailed 
on  the  Surgeon  of  a  regiment  to  go  express  to  Hartford,  Norwich, 
Providence,  Rhode  Island  and  Boston,  to  procure  medicines,  which 
places  were  so  bare  of  the  articles  that  we  principally  wanted,  as  to 
occasion  a  great  disappointment.  What  is  more  worthy  of  remark, 
they  never  came  to  hand  till  a  short  while  before  the  retreat  from 
Hackensack.  I  had  applied  to  Governor  Trumbull  by  letter,  for 
some  assistance,  which  though  it  was  sent  as  expeditiously  as  pos- 
sible, took  time,  (u)  I  also  applied  in  person  to  the  State  of  New- 
York,  at  Fish-Kills,  hearing  they  had  part  of  a  stock  of  medicines 
purchased  for  the  use  of  that  state  on  hand,  and  found  it  had  been 
ordered  to  Albany  for  the  use  of  the  Northern  department. 

What  made  it  more  astonishing  that  the  number  and  clamors  of 
the  sick  should  be  so  great  at  that  time  is,  that  in  a  consultation 
which  your  Excellency,  General  Green  and  General  Parsons  had, 
a  few  days  before  the  evacuation  of  New-York,  it  was  there  pro- 
posed to  send  off  the  sick  and  all  unfit  for  duty  in  brigades,  with 


5o6  APPENDIX   B. 

some  careful  officers  out  of  each  brigade  to  attend  them,  and  money 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  suitable  accommodations  and  refresh- 
ments ;  and  a  Surgeon  was  ordered  along  with  the  sick  of  each 
brigade,  that  they  might  not  suffer  for  want  of  medical  assist- 
ance, (w)  I  am  still  of  opinion  it  was  the  best  step  that  could  have 
been  taken  to  prevent  the  sick  from  falling  into  the  enemy's  hands, 
unless  what  I  once  mentioned  to  your  Excellency  as  my  wish  could 
^  have  been  accomplished,  viz.  That  protections  might  be  granted  to 
the  hospitals  on  both  sides,  and  the  sick  not  become  prisoners  of 
war,  but  their  persons  and  attendants  might  be  privileged  and  safe, 
as  was  the  case  betwixt  the  French  and  English  in  the  wars  of 
Europe. 

Yet  all  the  consequences  of  the  sick  suffering  for  want  of  neces- 
saries— sad  spectacles  of  human  woe  presenting  themselves  in  towns, 
villages  and  on  the  roads,  and  straggling  through  the  country, 
thereby  exciting  the  terror  as  well  as  the  compassion  of  the  inhabi- 
tants ;  have  been  ascribed  to  my  department  and  the  officers  under 
me,  at  a  time  when  we  ourselves  suffered,  and  called  in  vain  for 
assistance  from  other  departments,  and  so  far  as  we  were  able, 
became  fatiguemen  and  laborers  to  the  sick  and  wounded,  as  we 
could  procure  none  from  the  army,  and,  as  I  mentioned  before, 
many  of  our  attendants  and  nurses  fled. 

\  At  the  time  of  my  greatest  difficulty  to  procure  an  assortment  of 
■  medicines,  I  gave  orders  to  the  Apothecary  at  Newark  to  afford  what 
he  had  there,  which  was  all  that  could  be  got  to  dispense;  to  issue 
to  all  applyers  for  regimental  sick,  what  could  be  spared  at  any  rate 
from  the  hospital  practice,  and  referred  such  as  called  upon  me 
for  medicines,  to  him.  (x)  That  did  not  satisfy  all,  many  expecting, 
as  it  seems,  wherever  they  happened  to  be  stationed  or  wherever 
any  part  of  the  hospital  was  open  for  the  reception  of  the  sick  and 
wounded,  that  they  had  a  right  to  draw  any  medicines  they  wanted, 
and  to  be  furnished  from  thence  with  whatever  they  called  for, 
though  that  part  was  only  provided  for  its  own  consumption,  and 
the  Surgeons  of  the  hospital  were  willing  to  take  care  of  the  sick 
sent  to  them  for  that  purpose. 

In  the  midst  of  this  scene  of  perplexity  and  confusion  I  re- 
ceived a  note  from  Col.  Grayson,  Aid-de-Camp  to  your  Excellency, 
desiring  to  know  from  you,  whether  I  could,  or  whether  I  thought 
it  in  the  lines  of  my  duty  to  supply  the  regimental  Surgeons  with 
what  they  wanted ;  to  which  I  returned  for  answer,  "  that  I  had 
never  conceived  it  to  be  properly  in  the  line  of  my  duty,  though  I 
had  done  everything  in  my  power  to  perform  that  service,  the  want 
of  a  better  establishment,  the  present  being  in  that  respect  contrary 
to  every  known  practice,  as  I  had  always  declared,  and  if  it  was 


APPENDIX    B. 


507 


ever  so  much  expected  from  me  I  had  not  the  means."  It  was  then 
by  your  order  that  I  drew  up  the  proposed  regulations  for  a  better 
establishment,  which  I  forwarded  to  Congress  so  soon  as  it  was  re- 
turned to  me,  and  herewith  send  your  Excellency  a  copy,  (y)  It  was 
to  no  purpose  that  I  made  the  same  declaration  to  Officers  and  Sur- 
geons in  general,  as  I  had  done  to  your  Excellency.  Their  impor- 
tunities continued  as  great  as  ever. 

Immediately  after  this  I  received  a  charge  to  establish  further 
hospitals,  to  be  situated  more  conveniently  for  the  station  of  your 
army  at  that  time.  I  recommended  Hackensack.  Every  General 
officer  to  whom  it  was  mentioned,  approved  of  it,  as  the  most  suit- 
able place  of  all  others  for  the  sick  of  the  army  on  York  Island, 
there  being  no  such  convenient  place  on  the  island  itself,  and  the 
enemy  had  just  made  a  descent  above  Kingsbridge.  I  was  ordered 
over  the  river  to  view  Hackensack,  and  to  report  what  numbers  of 
sick  could  be  provided  for  at  that  place.  On  my  return,  I  did 
accordingly  report  that  if  a  sufficient  number  of  carpenters  and 
masons  were  set  to  work  immediately  to  fit  up  the  church,  court- 
house, manufactory  and  a  store  house  or  two,  &c.  six  or  seven  hun- 
dred men,  and  perhaps  more  might  be  accommodated  in  the  town, 
and  neighborhood ;  but  it  would  require  many  workmen,  and  some 
time  to  prepare  places  for  their  convenient  reception.  I  was  then 
ordered  back  to  carry  the  plan  into  execution  with  all  possible  dili- 
gence. I  went  accordingly,  and  next  day  no  less  than  300  men 
were  brought  into  the  neighborhood  for  me  to  look  after,  though 
I  was  quite  alone  in  respect  to  help.  They  daily  increased  in  num- 
bers, so  that  within  a  few  days  they  amounted  to  upwards  of  a 
thousand.  I  had  left  instructions  for  Dr.  Warren,  and  a  number  of 
Mates  and  other  hospital  officers  to  follow  and  attend  the  sick.(z) 
At  first  we  had  neither  bread,  flour,  nor  fresh  provisions  in  readi- 
ness, nor  were  Commissaries  at  hand,  from  whom  I  could  obtain  any 
help.  General  Green,  to  whom  I  sent  to  fort  Lee  for  assistance, 
was  gone  over  to  York-island.  So  soon  as  my  hands  were  strength- 
ened with  Dr.  Warren's  and  Mr.  Zabrisky's  help,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  Commissary  and  Quarter-Master,  difficulties  abated  by 
degrees  every  day,  and  our  affairs  got  into  a  more  promising  train. 
In  the  mean  while  the  two  armies  having  marched  towards  the 
White  Plains,  a  battle  was  expected.  I  therefore  hastened  to  join 
your  Excellency.  On  my  arrival  I  found  the  Surgeons  of  the  General 
hospital,  in  consequence  of  orders  from  head-quarters,  to  look  out 
for  a  place  for  the  wounded  at  a  convenient  distance,  had  pitched 
upon  the  church  at  North-Castle,  as  the  most  suitable  they  could 
meet  with.  I  went  to  view  it  and  to  prepare  matters  if  the  enemy's 
troops  should  come  to  action. 


5o8  APPENDIX    B. 

Whilst  we  were  getting  in  readiness,  a  firing  of  cannon  was 
heard  anew,  for  there  had  been  a  firing  heard,  the  day  before  at  fort 
Washington.  On  learning  it  was  at  the  White  Plains,  every  Sur- 
geon of  the  hospital  then  present  set  out  with  me,  immediately  for 
the  Plains,  several  Mates  following,  with  a  waggon,  to  bring  the 
instruments  and  dressings.  We  fixed  near  the  lines,  and  I  never 
stirred  from  thence  till  the  enemy  retreated,  which  was  about  a 
week  after;  nor  till  your  Excellency  crossed  the  river,  to  hasten  to 
the  support  of  Fort  Washington.  In  the  mean  time,  the  situation  of 
afifairs  would  not  permit  me  leave  to  return  to  North  Castle,  but 
for  a  few  hours,  to  give  directions  and  to  assist  in  providing  for 
the  sick  and  wounded;  an  hospital  Surgeon,  and  some  times  two  or 
more,  with  three  or  four  Mates,  attending  the  whole  time  at  the 
Plains,  in  expectation  of  a  second  action. 

Here  I  cannot  but  feel  for  the  hospital  Surgeons,  who  before 
they  could  obtain  any  quarters,  except  such  as  a  few  hours  industry 
enabled  them  to  do,  in  a  country  which  was  not  well  calculated  to 
afford  any  good,  were  suddenly  overwhelmed  with  numbers  of  sick 
sent  to  them,  as  well  as  the  wounded,  in  time  of  an  engagement,  and 
whilst  many  of  the  regimental  Surgeons  were  absent  in  the  country, 
having  left  their  corps  in  the  field,  without  assistance,  contrary  to 
the  orders  of  July  3d,  at  a  time  when  an  engagement  was  con- 
sidered as  inevitable,  there  were  few  at  hand  to  give  aid.  Hence, 
whilst  the  hospital  Surgeons  were  preparing  matters  at  their  proper 
stations  in  the  hospital,  clamors  were  excited  against  them  for  not 
being  with  the  troops,  and  when  they  were  detained  at  the  lines,  to 
supply  the  places  of  regimental  Surgeons,  who  ought  to  have  been 
there;  the  wounded,  who  were  conveyed  to  the  hospitals,  naturally 
demanded  the  attention  of  the  whole  body  of  Surgeons,  to  adminis- 
ter aid  to  them,  (v) 

When  I  was  at  liberty  to  repair  to  North  Castle,  all  my  applica- 
tions for  workmen,  to  put  the  hospital  in  order,  to  construct  chim- 
neys, and  secure  the  sick  and  wounded  from  cold,  the  effects  of 
which  were  severely  felt  at  that  time,  and  of  which  it  is  thought 
some  died,  proved  abortive.  Such  then  as  could  not  be  accommo- 
dated here,  under  care  of  Doctors  Adams  and  McKnight,  were  sent 
to  Stamford  and  Newark,  to  the  amount  of  above  a  thousand,  under 
the  care  of  Doctors  Turner  and  Eustis,  Surgeons  of  the  General 
hospital,  and  every  accommodation  possible  was  provided  for  them. 
Before  I  go  on  with  this  narrative  of  General  hospital  proceedings, 
I  shall  just  observe,  that  in  part  of  a  day  and  night's  time,  several 
hundred  sick  and  wounded,  were  transported  from  Long-Island  to 
New- York,  amidst  a  heavy  rain,  which  fell  during  our  retreat.  They 
were  landed  at  different  wharves,  and  carried  into  different  houses, 


APPENDIX    B.  509 

whilst  myself  and  those  about  me  used  all  our  endeavors  to  collect 
them  together,  into  barracks,  and  hospitals  I  had  provided  for 
them ;  and  although  all  possible  care  was  taken  to  prevent  it,  yet 
many  of  them  unavoidably  suffered,  though  we  were  up  a  great  part 
of  the  night  in  this  service. 

So  soon  as  I  was  able  to  attend  that  duty  in  person,  I  gave  my 
assistance  in  dressing  the  patients,  so  that  there  was  not  a  single 
one,  of  those  wounded  in  the  action  on  Long-Island,  who  were 
brought  to  the  General  hospital  at  New- York,  that  I  did  not  dress 
myself,  and  I  assisted  in  all  operations  that  I  knew  of,  wherever  I 
was  present  and  could  attend;  for  I  always  visited  as  many  sick 
officers  and  others,  out  of  the  hospital,  by  myself  and  in  consultation, 
as  was  any  ways  possible  for  me  to  do,  consistent  with  my  other 
calls  of  duty. 

How  much  pains  I  took  by  writing  and  conversation  to  assist  in 
getting  the  regimental  Surgeons  on  some  footing,  satisfactory  to 
them,  and  useful  to  the  army,  I  could  adduce  many  proofs,  if  re- 
quired ;  that  I  never  could  effect  it,  is  what  I  have  to  lament.  The 
causes  I  shall  not  take  up  your  time  to  investigate.  If  the  plan, 
now  before  your  Excellency,  should  take  place  either  in  whole,  or 
part,  it  may  perhaps  effect  that  desirable  purpose,  where  my  en- 
deavors must  rest. 

The  orders  and  instructions  I  have  given  to  the  Surgeons  of  the 
General  hospital,  at  different  times,  are  numerous ;  some  of  them 
your  Excellency  read,  approved,  and  subscribed  yourself. 

Sometimes  when  houses  for  hospitals  have  been  assigned  me  by 
public  authority,  I  have  met  with  great  opposition  in  getting  pos- 
session of  them,  from  protections  in  favor  of  the  proprietors,  and 
occupiers,  or  others,  as  in  the  case  of  Stuyvesants,  and  in  those  in 
the  Bowry,  where  a  brigade  of  militia  dispossessed  the  sick  of  the 
houses,  assigned  for  that  purpose,  by  the  New- York  Committee. 

To  bring  this  narrative  of  my  conduct  to  a  conclusion.  So 
soon  as  I  heard  of  the  loss  of  Fort  Washington,  Fort  Lee,  Hacken- 
sack  and  Newark,  judging  your  Excellency  would  require  my  pres- 
ence, I  left  the  best  directions  I  could,  for  the  Surgeons  of  the  Gen- 
eral hospital  on  the  east  side  of  Hudson's-River,  and  hastened  to 
join  you,  which  I  did,  the  day  after  you  crossed  the  Delaware.  I 
was  distressed  to  find  your  Excellency  entirely  destitute  of  Sur- 
geons, at  hand,  to  take  charge  of  the  wounded,  in  case  of  battle. 

With  your  Exellency's  approbation  I  proceeded  to  Philadelphia, 
to  lay  this  matter  before  Congress,  and  get  an  explanation  of  the 
meaning  of  their  resolves  of  October  9th,  respecting  my  being  sta- 
tioned on  the  east  side  of  Hudson's-River.  I  applied  to  several 
members,  and  requested  an  audience,  but,  on  account  of  the  situa- 


5IO 


APPENDIX    B. 


tion  of  afifairs  at  that  time,  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  it.  The  Con- 
gress was  fully  employed,  and  adjourned  within  a  day  or  two  after- 
wards, to  Maryland.  The  sick  were  brought  daily  to  the  city,  in 
great  numbers,  objects  of  pity.  For  the  care  of  them,  I  gave  the 
best  advice  I  could  to  Dr.  Potts,  who  was  employed  by  the  Council 
of  Safety  for  that  purpose.  Several  waggon  loads  of  medicines  and 
hospital  articles,  which  had  been  preserved  from  falling  into  the 
enemy's  hands,  and  sent  from  New- York  to  Newark,  and  from  thence 
to  Philadelphia,  were  brought  to  the  college,  in  no  good  condition. 
It  was  my  care  to  collect  from  them,  what  was  of  most  value,  and 
chiefly  wanted  for  hospital  use,  and  send  to  Bethlehem.  The  rest, 
by  order  of  Congress,  were  shipped  to  Wilmington  and  Christeen, 
where  I  sent  a  Surgeon  to  review  and  see  them  repacked  in  good 
order,  and  to  make  out  an  invoice  of  the  same,  and  send  it  to  Con- 
gress. 

I  returned  to  head-quarters,  and  that  day  received  a  letter  from 
an  honorable  member,  which  I  shewed  to  your  Excellency,  giving 
it  as  his  judgement,  that  it  was  the  design  of  Congress,  I  should  at- 
tend to  the  care  of  the  sick  on  the  east  side  of  Hudson's-River,  and 
be  restricted  to  that  place,  which  I  could  not  but  consider  as  a 
singular  restriction  for  a  Director-General. 

In  obedience,  however,  to  this  resolve  of  Congress,  I  determined 
to  repair  to  that  station,  but  found  it  necessary  to  take  Bethlehem  in 
my  way,  as  my  papers  and  baggage,  and  most  of  the  hospital  Sur- 
geons and  Mates  of  my  department  were  at  that  place,  and  to  de- 
liver over  to  some  proper  persons,  for  the  use  of  your  Excellency's 
army,  the  chief  articles  of  the  medicines  I  had  sent  there.  Of 
these,  however,  I  reserved  a  few,  and  comparatively  but  a  few,  of 
such  as  were  wanted,  with  some  few  stores,  likewise  wanted,  for 
the  sick  on  this  side,  together  with  my  instruments  and  bandages. 
But  your  Excellency  having  seen  fit  to  send  for  these,  by  express, 
they  were  accordingly  despatched  by  the  same  messenger. 

Of  ten  thousand  bandages  I  had  prepared  for  use  in  the  beginning 
of  the  campaign,  what  with  the  consumption,  loss,  supplies  to  the 
General  hospital  and  regimental  Surgeons,  few  are  left. 

The  difficulties  of  attending  to  the  wants  and  demands  of  so  many 
sick,  spread  through  so  great  a  tract  of  country,  and  the  clamors 
which  have  been  raised,  in  consequence  thereof,  have  induced  me  to 
trouble  your  Excellency  with  this  long  and  particular  detail  of  facts, 
and  to  request  your  Excellency's  order  for  a  court  of  Inquiry,  how 
the  sick  have  been  taken  care  of,  in  the  General  hospital ;  composed 
of  officers  best  acquainted  with  the  rules  and  discipline  of  war,  and 
of  hospital  matters;  by  which  it  may  be  known  in  what  manner, 
agreeable  to  the  establishment  of  our  General  hospital,  by  authority 


APPENDIX    C  511 

of  Congress,  and  the  instructions  I  have  received,  from  time  to  time, 
from  Congress  and  your  Excellency,  and  the  information  and  assist- 
ance I  have  repeatedly  applied  for,  provision  has  been  made  for  the 
sick;  that  the  nature  of  military  hospitals,  in  general,  and  of  ours 
in  particular,  may  be  ascertained ;  and  if  the  sick  have  suffered  more 
than  was  inevitable,  from  the  nature,  peculiar  hardships  and  diffi- 
culties of  last  Campaign,  the  causes  may  be  known,  and  a  seasonable 
remedy  applied,  and  those  on  whom  any  imputations  have  fallen, 
either  of  neglect  or  mismanagement,  may  have  an  opportunity  of 
vindicating  their  proceedings,  before  a  proper  tribunal,  which  is 
what  I  intreat  for  myself,  and  for  the  department  under  me. 

I  have  requested  Dr.  McKnight  to  take  charge  of  these  dispatches, 
and  hope  for  your  Excellency's  answer,  when  leisure  will  permit ; 
being  with  greatest  deference. 

Your  Excellency's 

most  obedient 

and  very  humble  servent 

John  Morgan 

Fish-Kills 

February  ist,  1777. 

APPENDIX   C. 

The  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  and  Reminiscences  of  the  Physi- 
cians AND  Surgeons  who  have  served  it.  By  Charles  D. 
Meigs.    Pennsylvania  Hospital  Reports,  1868,  Vol.  I. 

This  delightful  account  of  the  most  prominent  medical  men  of 
Philadelphia  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  first  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century  is  so  unique  in  its  interest  that  I  reprint 
that  part  of  it  which  deals  directly  with  their  personal  traits.  The 
whole  address  is  of  the  greatest  interest. 

"  We  esteem  the  greatest  name  of  the  men  who  in  that  now 
somewhat  distant  day  served  in  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  was  the 
name  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  Professor  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

"  That  eminent  physician's  renown  was  not  founded  alone  upon 
his  grand  career  in  the  fatal  epidemic  of  1793,  or  in  like  occurrences 
in  years  following.  It  depended  far  more  upon  his  surpassing  and 
most  captivating  eloquence,  upon  his  great  wisdom,  his  learning, 
and  the  inextinguishable  zeal  whose  fire  was  not  in  the  least  as- 
suaged at  the  time  we  attended  upon  his  last  course  of  lectures,  at 
that  venerable  and  beautiful  old  age  which  soon  afterwards  let  him 
gently  down  into  an  honored  grave,  where  his  remains  now  rest, 


512  APPENDIX    C. 

more  sacred  than  the  dust  that  draws  thousands  of  annual  pilgrims 
to  the  tomb  of  the  Imaums. 

"  May  we  not  stop  a  moment  just  here  to  express  the  wish  and  the 
hope  that  ere  many  years  shall  have  elapsed  the  statue  of  that  emi- 
nent American  may  find  its  appropriate  plinth  in  some  conspicuous 
part  of  the  town  whose  very  name  is  signally  honored  by  his  whole 
life  and  conversation.  May  all  Philadelphia  cry  out  with  one  voice 
Placet,  placet ! 

"  Dr.  Rush,  by  his  actions  and  his  writings,  became  in  a  certain 
sense  and  extent  the  American  Galen,  for  we  think  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  he  did  transmit  his  idea,  as  a  governing  and  directing 
element,  down  through  more  than  half  a  century  of  American  Medi- 
cine, controlling  the  practice  of  physic  with  an  authority  during  that 
time  as  potent  as  was  the  authority  of  the  great  Pergamenian  in  the 
far  longer  series  of  centuries,  from  the  second  until  deep  into  the 
seventeenth.  Yet  even  to-day  the  name  of  Galen  is  not  blotted  out ; 
and  like  Rush's,  is  only  under  the  eclipse  of  this  progressive  age. 
They  are  both  marking  and  ineffaceable  titles  on  the  roll  of  history 
in  our  Medicine.  In  a  great  degree  Dr.  Rush,  though  so  long  ago 
joined  to  his  fathers,  still  rules  much  of  the  medical  practice  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States.  His  was  a  great  mission,  and  he  filled 
his  station  well. 

"  When  I  was  a  boy  of  twelve  years  old  the  name  of  Dr.  Rush 
was  a  sort  of  myth  in  my  young  ears,  and  was  known  by  all  the 
people  of  yon  sequestered  village  on  the  Creek  Frontier;  and  when 
in  the  autumn  of  1812  I  first  entered  his  lecture-room  in  the  old 
University  building  on  Ninth  Street,  I  was  enrapt ;  his  voice,  sweeter 
than  any  flute,  fell  on  my  ears  like  droppings  from  a  sanctuary,  and 
the  spectacle  of  his  beautiful  radiant  countenance,  with  his  earnest, 
most  sincere,  most  persuasive  accents,  sunk  so  deep  into  my  heart 
that  neither  time  nor  change  could  eradicate  them  from  where  they 
are  at  this  hour  freshly  remembered.  Oh !  but  he  was  a  most 
charming  gentleman !  a  '  grave  and  reverend  and  potent  signor'  in 
the  scholar  class  of  mankind ! 

"  Now  this  was  one  of  the  men  who  graced  this  old  Hospital  in 
our  young  days,  with  his  teachings,  his  learning,  his  wisdom,  and 
his  manners,  formed  upon  the  grand  old  style  of  Washington's 
court,  of  which,  alas !  but  a  few  scattered  and  bowed-down  speci- 
mens are  here  and  there  to  be  seen  lingering  in  our  country. 

"  There  it  was,  as  well  as  in  his  lecture-room,  that  he  helped  to 
mould  and  fashion  the  manners  and  deportment  of  that  house  in  a 
way  to  make  it  specific — characteristical.  Yet  not  to  him  alone  are 
our  thanks  due  for  the  form  of  this  school  and  its  individual  sig- 
nificancy.     He  had  brave  coadjutors,  whose  ministrations  there  and 


APPENDIX    C  513 

elsewhere  laid  on  the  brows  of  Philadelphia  the  Science-Crown, 
that  shone  so  far  and  so  bright  in  those  palmy  days  of  his  School 
of  Medicine. 

"  Dr.  Kuhn,  a  favorite  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  who  learned  to  love  him 
at  Upsala,  was  a  man  distinguished  for  learning  and  probity;  an 
honor  to  our  calling.  Dr.  Philip  Syng  Physick,  long  a  pupil  and 
assistant  and  trusted  friend  of  Mr.  Hunter,  and  long  a  resident 
in  the  Hospital  in  Mr.  Hunter's  service  at  London,  was  like  his 
master  a  model  of  exactness  and  certainty.  I  never  saw  a  man  who 
knew  so  thoroughly  well  all  that  he  knew.  It  seemed  as  if  his  science 
and  art  were  ledgered  in  his  brain,  so  that  he  could  turn  on  the 
instant  to  page  and  line.  Dr.  Physick's  service  in  the  house  was 
continued  during  more  than  twenty-two  years,  from  1794  to  1816, 
when  he  resigned  his  office.  His  manners  were  to  the  last  degree 
dignified  and  elegant,  and  as  he  still  wore  his  hair  powdered  and 
clubbed,  he  bore  about  him  a  sort  of  traditional  look,  which  added 
to  the  respect  which  everywhere,  in  public  and  private,  greeted  him, 
always  reverently.  In  the  midst  of  a  crowd  of  students  more  than 
five  hundred  in  number,  assembled  from  all  quarters  of  the  compass, 
impetuous,  ingenuous  hot  heads  from  the  Carolinas,  restless  Geor-. 
gians,  bold  sons  of  Kentucky,  and  Buckeyes  from  the  Northwest, 
or  the  graver  students  from  the  North,  the  moment  the  Professor 
entered  the  lecture-room  all  was  hush,  with  a  general  pleased  ex- 
pression murmured  all  over  the  amphitheatre,  '  and  ear  and  eye 
attentive  bent'  to  the  mellifluous  tones  of  his  voice,  or  the  most 
admirable  illustrations  of  surgical  processes  that  he  so  profusely 
supplied.  He  was  a  man  like  a  statue  of  marble  but  animated  by 
a  promethean  light  and  warmth.  Dr.  Physick  was  a  very  marked 
man  in  our  American  world  of  Medicine,  a  man  altogether  peculiar 
for  ability,  and  therefore  most  rare  and  most  highly  to  be  prized ; 
he  too  was  one  of  the  men  who  stamped  so  deeply  into  the  old 
Hospital  the  legend  on  its  name-shield,  '  conservatism.'  The  same 
motives  that  lead  us  to  remember  Dr.  Rush  and  Professor  Physick 
prompt  us  to  refer  to  the  learned,  benign,  beloved  Wistar;  Caspar 
Wistar,  long  the  able  Professor  of  Anatomy  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  where  and  from  his  honorable  See  he  dispensed  over 
the  land  the  precious  doctrines  upon  which  are  based  all  our  hopes 
of  usefulness  and  distinction  in  the  profession  of  physic.  He  was 
fully  up  to  the  broad  level  of  the  time,  and  he  too  carried  there 
his  grave,  serene,  most  admirable  manners  as  examples  of  the  polite 
demeanor  of  gentlemen  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  No 
student  dared  to  behave  unlike  a  gentleman  in  his  presence.  How 
could  such  men  serve  and  act  and  command  so  long  in  that  house 
and  not  leave,  like  a  beautiful  ship  in  the  sea,  a  long  bright  wake 

33 


514  APPENDIX    C. 

of  gentle  light  behind !  Here  too  was  Dorsey,  John  Syng  Dorsey, 
a  nephew  of  Dr.  Physick,  adjunct  first,  and  next  full  Professor  of 
Surgery,  brought  up  in  his  likeness,  an  eloquent,  ardent,  most  able 
teacher,  a  gentleman  most  popular  in  the  Hospital  and  the  school 
alike,  but  too  soon,  alas,  snatched  from  us  by  the  same  fatal  power 
that  early  deprived  the  world  of  the  admirable  Bichat. 

"  Whoever  will  read  Dorsey's  Surgery  will  learn  what  it  was 
that  common  sense  said  in  those  times  in  the  art  of  surgery.  Though 
we  have  not  the  least  doubt  or  lack  of  faith  in  the  great  progress 
of  medicine  in  all  its  branches  in  the  nineteenth  century,  must  we 
first  say  risum  teneatis  amici  before  we  venture  to  add  that  we 
early  received  Dorsey's  Surgery  as  a  man  takes  his  wife,  for  better, 
for  worse,  in  sickness  and  in  health,  until  death  doth  us  part;  and 
though  our  golden  wedding  is  already  past  and  gone,  that  we  adhere 
to  our  engagement  then  and  there. 

"  That  eminent  gentleman.  Dr.  Thomas  T.  Hewson,  with  whom 
it  was  our  privilege  to  enjoy  a  long  and  friendly  acquaintance,  was 
one  of  the  good  furtherers  of  our  house's  name  and  fame.  Dr. 
Joseph  Hartshorne,  a  bold,  highly  instructed,  and  most  dexterous 
surgeon ;  Joseph  Parrish,  a  model  man,  from  the  Society  of  Friends ; 
Dr.  J.  Rhea  Barton,  for  thirteen  years  and  five  months  the  ornament 
and  pride  of  the  surgical  department  of  the  Hospital,  in  which  his 
mind  had  been  trained  by  his  very  long  residence  as  house  pupil, 
in  a  department  he  illustrated  by  his  rare  conservatism  and  acknowl- 
edged skill ;  these  and  many  others  whom  we  love  to  remember, 
but  yet  are  too  redundant  for  this  our  limited  space,  but  among  them 
a  man  born  for  the  place,  and  in  his  own,  his  right  place, — we  mean 
Dr.  William  Pepper.  How  can  we  omit  the  name  of  Dr.  William 
Pepper?  To  name  him  is  to  praise  him,  so  extensively  known  as 
the  admirable  clinical  lecturer  at  the  Hospital  for  near  twenty 
consecutive  years,  and  subsequently  as  Professor  of  the  Practice  of 
Medicine  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

"  Well,  then,  a  child  grows  up  to  manhood,  forming  and  forming, 
and  forming  his  character  from  day  to  day,  as  a  slender  shoot  from 
the  buried  acorn  comes  forth  of  the  ground,  and  hardens  and  rises 
at  last  into  the  upper  air  a  strong,  unswerving  shaft,  'fit  for  the 
mast  of  some  tall  admiral ;'  so  does  a  man,  a  family,  a  nation  take 
its  permanent  set  and  holds  on  with  it  to  the  end. 

"  The  men  we  have  named,  and  many  before  and  since  their  day, 
have,  if  not  created,  at  least  moulded  the  character  of  the  house ; 
and  the  result  is  visible  in  a  wise  conservatism  which  has  so  long 
distinguished  it,  and  kept  out  all  rashness ;  while  not  moored,  but 
anchored,  she  swims  on  the  upper  stratum  of  the  rising  tide  of  medi- 
cal progress. 


APPENDIX    C.  515 

"  Now  we  indulge  the  hope  that  these  Hospital  reports  will  ever 
be  made  in  the  true  spirit  of  the  old  conservative  institution,  and 
prove  to  be  what  they  ought  to  be,  clear  and  truthful  expositions  and 
illustrations  of  the  facts  and  principles  of  the  cases.  We  would  that 
a  multitude  of  sure  indications,  both  in  the  diagnosis  and  the  method, 
which,  we  think,  are  of  late  too  much  overlooked  or  ignored  in  the 
description  of  medical  and  surgical  cases,  might  have  their  just, 
and  so  a  considerable,  part  in  every  such  relation.  It  seems  to  us 
not  enough  to  present  morning,  and  mid-day,  and  evening  statistics 
of  the  urine;  to  say  just  how  many  times  the  heart  is  beating  or 
the  chest  heaving  per  minute ;  for  we  love  to  know  not  only  the 
number  but  the  force  of  those  motions.  The  once  very  expressive 
word  synochus, — synochus  fortis  and  synocha  pulse, — which  were 
familiar  to  the  physicians  of  the  earlier  days  of  this  century,  are 
rarely  heard  now.  Dr.  Cullen's  old  description  of  the  pulse,  '  Prin- 
cipio  synocha,  progressu  et  versus  finem  typhus,'  contains  a  whole 
world  of  doctrine,  and  ought  not  to  have  suffered  so  great  a  lapse 
and  eclipse  as  hides  it  from  the  modern  student  and  practitioner 
alike. 

"  It  is  not  much  for  one  to  learn  that  a  pulse  is  beating  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  times  a  minute,  since  a  rapid  run  of  two  hundred 
yards  can  make  it  beat  a  hundred  and  fifty  times  a  minute  without 
harm.  What  care  I,  then,  for  the  frequency  unless  all  the  rest  is 
made  known  to  me.  There  is  a  difference  of  the  greatest  import  be- 
tween a  synochus  fortis  of  120  and  a  typhoid  of  120.  They  differ 
toto  each  in  the  prognosis  and  the  indication  of  method.  Our  vener- 
able Dr.  Rush  was  accustomed  to  address  us  at  considerable  length 
on  these  questions  in  sphygmology,  so  wholly  ignored  at  the  ap- 
proaching close  of  the  century. 

"  It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  almost  no  physician  will  ever 
approach  his  patient  without  feeling  the  pulse,  a  point  on  which,  so 
far  as  we  know,  most  part  of  medical  students  are  left  to  their  own 
devices  for  the  study  of  that  important  section  of  their  knowledge. 
This  was  formerly  far  from  being  the  case ;  and  the  lessened  modern 
attention  to  that  subject  is  the  real  cause  of  what  we  regard  as  a 
serious  damage  and  loss  as  to  our  best  efificiency  in  the  art  of  healing. 

"  There  is  varied  significance  in  a  slow  pulse  and  quick  one,  in  a 
frequent  and  a  rare  one,  in  a  hard  and  soft,  in  large  and  small,  in 
a  tremulous,  in  a  vermicular,  a  dicrotus,  and  a  halting  pulse.  These 
differences  and  their  varied  significance  used  to  be  dwelled  on  in 
our  Philadelphia  teaching,  and  we  long  to  see  a  revival  of  these 
good  and  careful  old-time  instructions. 

"  In  looking  out  for  the  diagnosis  we  love  to  know  all  about  the 
hues  and  translucency  of  the  adnata,   which   reveal   the   secrets  of 


5i6  APPENDIX    C 

many  a  blood  change  and  many  an  internal  resorption ;  every  move- 
ment of  the  alas  nasi,  and  the  repose  or  malaise  of  the  muscles  of 
expression  are  worthy  of  careful  notice  and  record,  vi^hile  the  dry- 
ness or  humidity  of  the  Schneiderian  membrane  are  as  worthy  of 
scrutiny  as  the  tongue  and  mouth,  or  the  epigastrical  poke  so  rarely 
ignored.  How  great  is  the  importance  of  a  knowledge  both  of  the 
number  of  respirations  in  a  given  time  and  the  number  of  cubic 
inches  inhaled  at  each  respiration ;  it  is  a  key  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  rate  of  oxidation  of  the  blood  and  tissues  on  which  so  closely 
depends  the  life-power ;  they  tell  us  what  the  brain  and  heart  as 
well  as  the  lungs  themselves  are  doing. 

" '  Mony  a  pickle  makes  a  mickle,'  says  the  Scotch  proverb,  and 
our  Dr.  Physick  would  go  down  to  such  small  things  even  as  sore 
knuckles  in  pursuit  of  useful  truth,  like  a  miser  who  won't  ignore 
scales  though  he  likes  nuggets  better.  '  Why,  young  gentlemen,' 
said  he,  '  I  have  been  many  different  times  called  on  by  persons  who 
at  great  expense  and  inconvenience  had  journeyed  hundreds  of  miles 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  showing  me  their  sore  knuckles,  which  had 
annoyed  them  for  years  and  cost  them  large  sums  in  fees  without 
the  least  avail.  The  sore  knuckles  had  been  supposed  incurable. 
Very  well,  then !  As  soon  as  I  saw  an  obstinate  sore  upon  a  man's 
knuckle,  how  should  I,  how  could  anybody  avoid  making  the  reflec- 
tion that  the  sore  must  have  been  kept  up  by  the  motion  of  the 
joint,  which  opened  and  shut  the  ulcer  dozens  of  times  every  day  so 
that  it  could  not  heal ;  or  that  other  reflection,  that  a  sore  finger, 
like  a  broken  bone,  requires  for  its  treatment  nothing  more  than  a 
splint'  The  Professor  then  cut  from  a  card  a  narrow  piece,  which 
he  converted  by  bending  it  into  a  half-cylinder,  adjusted  it  to  the 
palmar  surface  of  the  sore  finger,  dressed  the  sore  with  a  cerate  to 
prevent  the  bandage  from  sticking  to  the  edges  of  the  sore,  and 
bound  it  with  a  narrow  roller.  '  There !  that's  all  that  will  cure 
your  finger !'  And  there  never  was  a  sore  knuckle  that  could  not 
be  cured  in  a  few  days  by  keeping  the  ulcer  at  rest  by  means  of  such 
a  splint,  so  a  sore  knuckle  wants  nothing  but  a  splint.  He  said  that 
his  patients  were  much  surprised  by  the  rapid  way  in  which  they 
were  cured,  to  effect  which,  you  see,  said  he,  only  a  little  common 
sense  was  wanting.  It  was  this  same  common  sense  attribute  by 
which  he  was  distinguished  as  a  practitioner  and  as  a  teacher,  that 
led  to  his  great  success  in  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  joints, 
and  particularly  in  the  management  of  morbus  coxarius,  which  he 
always  treated  by  his  curved  splint. 

"  Dr.  Physick  was  a  great  bleeder,  and  though  not  so  ultra  as 
Guy  Patin,  or  Botalli,  he  carried  the  use  of  venesection  to  a  very 
great  length.     He  used  to  tell  us  that  while  he  was  resident  and 


APPENDIX    C.  517 

assistant  in  St.  George's  Hospital,  at  London,  a  man  who  had  fallen 
from  a  scaffold  was  brought  into  Mr.  Hunter's  ward  insensible  from 
concussion  of  the  brain.  'What  shall  I  do  for  the  man?'  said  tne 
young  disciple  to  his  master.  '  Shall  I  bleed  him,  sir?'  '  Bleed  him? 
bleed  him,  sir?  No,  sir;  you  would  kill  him  outright.  Wait,  sir, 
until  he  reacts,  and  then  bleed  him — bleed  him  to  death,  sir !' 

"  On  this  text  Dr.  Physick  founded  very  elaborate  instructions 
for  us  who  were  his  pupils.  A  spoken  word  ofttimes  becomes  a 
guiding  idea  for  a  man's  whole  life,  and  the  hospital  pupil  never 
forgot  this  one. 

"  One  day  while  strolling  along  Ninth  Street  near  the  University 
buildings  I  was  overtaken  by  Professor  Dorsey,  who  hooked  arms 
with  me  and  said,  '  Come  along  with  me ;  I  will  show  you  a  case.' 
We  entered  a  house  in  Market  Street  above  Ninth,  where,  in  an 
upper  room,  a  man  was  lying  on  a  bed,  pale,  breathing  very  slowly, 
and  perfectly  insensible;  his  pulse  was  soft  and  infrequent,  and 
he  snored  a  little  at  times.  '  This  man,'  said  Dorsey,  '  fell  from  a 
scaffold,  and  has  got  a  concussion  of  the  brain.  He  has  no  fracture 
of  the  skull,  and  yet  see  how  I  am  healing  him.  I  have  done  nothing 
but  wrap  his  head  in  this  towel  wrung  out  of  cool  water.' 

"  '  Is  that  all  that  you  are  going  to  do  for  him,  Doctor?' 

" '  Yes,  all  for  the  present.  Don't  you  remember  what  John 
Hunter  said  to  Dr.  Physick :  "  Wait  until  he  reacts,  and  then  I 
shall  bleed  him, — of  course  I  will"  ?' 

"  Of  course  we  cannot  pretend  to  know  how  far  Mr.  Hunter's 
strenuous  expression  of  his  opinion — as  to  the  actual  status  of  the 
brain  in  concussion,  while  the  heart  is  beating  feebly  and  faintly 
because  the  cerebro-spinal  axis  has  received  a  shock  that  half  de- 
prives it  of  its  innervating  force — was  meant  to  go ;  but  it  seems 
clear  that  he  must  have  entertained  a  wholesome  dread  of  the  batter- 
ing power  of  the  reacted  heart  when  impelling  its  arterial  columns 
into  the  brain-texture  after  such  a  shock  and  debilitation.  For  our- 
selves, however,  we  do  know  very  well  that  we  have  ever  looked 
upon  the  impulsion-force  of  a  heart  roused  and  maddened  into 
violent  reaction  as  a  force  truly  injective,  packing,  crowding,  and 
disruptive,  under  which  tissues  are  melted  or  broken  down  as  the 
curtain  of  a  besieged  fortress  melts  and  crumbles  and  is  broken 
down  under  the  driving,  disruptive  power  of  the  siege  guns.  We  do 
not  deny  that  venesection  may  and  even  has  been  recklessly  practised, 
for  we  are  familiar  with  Botalli  and  Guy  Patin,  and  Valot  and 
Guenault,  et  id  genus  omne,  with  old  Fagon  at  their  head;  but  we 
have  heard  Dr.  Physick,  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life,  say  that  his 
regret  as  a  professional  man  retiring  from  the  active  pursuits  of 
business  was,  not  that  he  had  bled  too  much,  but  that  persons  had 


5i8  APPENDIX   C. 

died  under  his  care  because  he  failed  to  do  his  whole  duty  in  that 
preventive  and  conservative  service  from  want  of  the  needful  resolu- 
tion and  firmness.  Yet  Dr.  Physick  was  by  no  means  a  Sangrado. 
In  our  young  and  doubting  days  we  often  appealed  to  him  for  help 
and  direction ;  and  though  we  had  scrupulously  attended  at  his 
lectures  and  illustrations  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  more 
than  once  did  he  terrify  us  by  the  exhibition  of  his  dash  in  the 
practice  of  his  art.  One  instance  out  of  many  may  illustrate  our 
meaning.  It  was  long  ago  that  a  woman  fell  under  our  charge 
laboring  with  a  terrible  conjunctivitis,  one  so  extremely  violent  as 
to  threaten  her  with  loss  of  the  eye  through  ulceration  of  the  cornea, 
or  by  a  complete  glaucoma  to  which  it  might  perhaps  have  led. 
The  Professor  had  filled  our  mind  with  a  conviction  that  he  was 
right  in  pushing  the  use  of  bloodletting  to  otitrancc  for  the  purpose 
of  reducing  the  injection-force  of  the  heart  to  a  proper  balance  with 
the  resisting  power  of  the  minute  arteries  and  capillaries  of  the 
conjunctiva.  He  had  instructed  us  to  bleed  daily  until  this  balance 
of  forces  should  be  effected.  Accordingly  Mrs.  Smith,  who  was 
agonized  with  pain,  was  duly  bled,  to-day,  to-morrow,  the  next  day 
and  next  morning,  and  so  on  until  at  last  she  fainted  so  badly  that 
terror  laid  hold  of  us,  and  we  fled  for  shelter  and  for  succor  to  the 
good  man's  office  in  Fourth  Street.  He  was  very  pale,  very  sick, 
and  very  feeble;  yet,  said  he,  'I  will  meet  you  at  Mrs.  Smith's  at 
ten  o'clock  to-morrow  morning.' 

"  Now,  I  declare  that  my  very  copious  and  repeated  bleedings, 
and  all  my  lotions  and  cataplasms  and  eye-waters,  had  not  in  the 
least  discernible  degree  lessened  the  pain,  the  engorgement,  or  the 
redness  of  Mrs.  S.'s  conjunctiva.  She  was  half  blind  already,  when, 
at  ten  o'clock,  Dr.  P.  accompanied  me  to  her  darkened  chamber. 
'  Give  me  a  little  light  from  yonder  window,'  said  he,  after  examin- 
ing the  pulse.  '  Open  the  shutter  a  little  wider.'  Then  touching  the 
lids,  he  looked  into  the  eye,  and,  after  the  briefest  glance  at  it,  said, 
'  That  will  do.'     *  Good-morning,  madam,'  and  we  left  the  room. 

"  '  Now,  Dr.  Physick,'  said  I,  '  I  have  fully  and  boldly  carried  out 
your  plan  in  the  treatment  of  this  ophthalmia,  for  I  have  copiously 
bled  my  patient  daily  until  I  am  ashamed  and  afraid  to  do  so  again, 
because  at  the  last  operation  she  fainted  so  badly  as  to  greatly  alarm 
me.  I  fear  I  am  not  far  from  the  disgrace  of  losing  an  eye  in  my 
practice, — a  disaster  I  cannot  contemplate  with  patience.  What  can  I 
possibly  do  now?'  '  Who  is  your  bleeder?'  '  Mr.  Conrad  Ripperger.' 
'  Very  well ;  pray.  Doctor,  send  for  Mr.  Ripperger  to  take  twelve 
ounces  from  the  arm  this  morning,  and  ask  him  to  meet  you  again 
at  ten  to-morrow  to  bleed  her  again,  provided  she  should  not  appear 
very  much  better  at  your  next  visit.' 


APPENDIX    C.  519 

"  I  well  remember  how  shocked  I  was  by  this  decision,  and  that 
I  told  him  it  was  very  hard  for  me  to  be  convinced,  but  that  I  will- 
ingly acknowledged  his  superior  wisdom  and  authority. 

"  Mrs.  S.  having  been  duly  bled,  Mr.  Ripperger  was  on  hand  at 
the  appointed  hour  of  the  following  day;  and  truer  words  were 
never  spoken  than  these,  that  on  looking  into  the  eye  I  could  dis- 
cover only  faint  traces  of  the  very  violent  and  obstinate  inflamma- 
tion, for  virtually  she  was  cured  already.  Mr.  R.  did  not  repeat 
his  operation^  and  Mrs.  Smith's  eye  was  shortly  and  perfectly 
restored  to  health. 

"  Many  and  many  were  the  instances  of  dangerous  ophthalmia 
that  I  treated  successfully  in  that  line  afterwards, — a  line  in  which 
I  should  have  continued  to  fight  it  were  it  not  that  I  many  years 
afterwards  learned  that  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  so  posologically  ad- 
justed as  to  give  to  its  contacts  a  destructive,  an  alterative  or  cura- 
tive, or  an  indififerent  force  at  my  option.  The  important  invention 
of  the  applicability  of  nitrate  of  silver  to  all  accessible  superficial 
inflammations  set  aside  the  common  necessity  and  indispensability 
of  venesection  to  that  degree  that  might  have  ravished  with  joy  and 
triumph  the  best  bleeders  of  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.  or  of  the 
Virgin  Queen's  at  the  courtship  of  the  Duke  D'Alengon.  Anybody 
may  understand  this  who  will  read  Guy  Patin's  letters  or  Botalli's 
book. 

"  If  the  relation  of  this  incident  should  happily  serve  to  amuse  or 
interest  the  reader  as  illustrating  the  modes  of  now  long-gone  years, 
we  may  venture  to  hope  that  the  following  anecdote  may  in  like 
manner  be  accepted  as  a  slight  yet  not  unwelcome  illustration.  We 
for  our  part  should  be  very  glad  in  the  possession  of  a  diary  filled 
with  the  whole  aspects  and  words  of  the  Bonds,  the  Joneses,  the 
Redmans,  Kuhns,  and  indeed  of  every  man  who  has  served  in  the 
Hospital  from  1755  until  now. 

"  It  was  in  the  early  winter  days  of  1812  that,  along  with  a  crowd 
of  fellows  from  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia,  the  Carolinas, 
and  Georgia,  as  well  as  the  great  West,  we  were  walking  the  Hos- 
pital at  the  heels  of  our  venerable  master.  Professor  Benjamin  Rush. 
We  had  come  out  of  the  door  of  the  east  or  cross  building  in  the 
second  story  and  were  passing  now  into  the  men's  medical  ward. 
Dr.  Rush  pushed  open  the  door  and  was  stepping  into  the  ward 
when  he  suddenly  stopped,  and  looking  back  upon  us,  the  crowd, 
said,  'Stop  a  moment,  young  gentlemen,  if  you  please:  I  have  an 
instruction  to  give  you  as  we  stand  here  at  the  door.'  Then,  point- 
ing diagonally  over  the  ward  to  its  northwest  corner,  he  continued, 
'  Please  to  look  yonder,  in  the  corner  of  the  room,  where  that  poor 
man  lies  who  has  been  so  long  and  .so  dangerously  ill.    I  wish  you  to 


520  APPENDIX   D. 

note  that  he  is  now  lying  upon  his  side.  That's  all  for  the  present. 
I  call  your  attention  to  the  circumstance  now,  but  purpose  to  explain 
myself  more  fully  when  we  reach  his  bedside  in  due  order.' 

"  Probably  not  one  of  us  had  the  least  idea  of  what  he  meant, 
and  we  continued  to  press  around  and  near  him  as  he  went  from  bed 
to  bed  on  either  side  of  the  ward,  explaining  to  us  the  state  and 
meaning  of  the  symptoms  and  the  indications,  until  at  length  we 
came  together  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  ward,  at  the  couch  of 
the  supposed  hopeless  case  of  nervous  fever. 

"  The  patient,  ill  with  what  in  that  day  (so  long  before  M.  Louis) 
was  known  as  nervous,  but  now  recognized  as  typhoid  fever,  had 
been  found  at  every  successive  visit  growing  more  and  more  hope- 
lessly ill,  and  having  been  for  several  days  profoundly  insensible, 
lying  always  upon  the  back,  without  power  to  move,  led  us  to  ex- 
pect his  death ;  but  now,  when  we  again  stood  around  his  couch. 
Dr.  Rush  said,  '  You  remember,  young  gentlemen,  that  when  we 
entered  the  ward  by  yonder  door  I  stopped,  and  called  your  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  this  man  was  lying  on  his  side,  as  you  now 
perceive,  and  this  was  the  first  time  for  many  days.  I  took  it  for 
granted  that  his  strength  was  increased  as  he  could  not  have  done 
so  else;  for  a  man  in  a  low  nervous  fever,  entirely  insensible,  and 
barely  still  alive,  can  by  no  means  change  his  dorsal  to  a  lateral 
decubitus.  I  was  much  pleased,  gentlemen,  to  observe  this  favorable 
omen  from  the  door ;  and  now  you  will  find  by  his  pulse,  his 
breathing,  his  improved  animation,  for  he  actually  recognizes  and 
speaks  to  us,  that  he  is  decidedly  better,  leading  us  to  expect  that 
the  crisis  is  past,  and  that  he  will  entirely  recover  ere  long.'  The 
man  did  recover,  but  we  never  lost  any  part  of  that  simple,  under- 
toned,  but  deep-graved  lesson  in  diagnosis  and  prognosis.  If  Dr. 
Physick  taught  us  common  sense  about  sore  knuckles.  Dr.  Rush 
taught  us  common  sense  on  the  decubitus  of  sick  people,  on  their 
gestures  and  the  whole  expression  of  the  figure." 


APPENDIX   D. 


LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES   CHIEFLY   CONSULTED  IN   THE  PRECEDING   WORK  ON 
THE   HISTORY   OF    MEDICINE   IN    AMERICA. 

A  Century  of  American  Medicine,  1776-1876;  E.  H.  Clarke, 
M.D.,  Henry  J.  Bigelow,  M.D.,  Samuel  D.  Gross,  M.D.,  T.  Gaillard 
Thomas,  M.D.,  J.  S.  Billings,  M.D.     Philadelphia,  1876. 

Bartlett,  J.  R.  Records  of  the  Colony  of  Rhode  Island,  etc. 
Printed  by  order  of  the  General  Assembly,  Providence,  1862. 


APPENDIX    D.  521 

Beck,  John  B.  An  Historical  Sketch  of  the  State  of  American 
Medicine  before  the  Revolution.     Albany,  N.  Y.,  1842. 

Beekman,  J.  W.  Centenary  Address  delivered  before  the  Society 
of  the  New  York  Hospital,  July  24,  1871.    New  York,  1871. 

Bronson,  Henry,  M.D.  Historical  Account  of  the  Origin  of  the 
Connecticut  Medical  Society.  Proceedings  Connecticut  Medical  So- 
ciety, vol.  iv.,  1872-75. 

Bush,  L.  P.,  M.D.  The  Delaware  State  Medical  Society  and  its 
Pounders  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Presented  at  the  Annual  Meet- 
ing of  the  American  Academy  of  Medicine.     1885. 

Carey,  Matthew.  A  Brief  Account  of  the  Malignant  Fever  which 
prevailed  in  Philadelphia  in  the  Year  1793.     Philadelphia,  1793. 

Carson,  Joseph,  M.D.  History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.     Philadelphia,  1869. 

Cathrall,  Isaac.  A  Medical  Sketch  of  the  Synochus  Maligna,  or 
Malignant  Contagious  Fever;  as  it  lately  appeared  in  the  City  of 
Philadelphia.     Philadelphia,  1794. 

Condie,  Thomas,  and  Richard  Folwell.  History  of  the  Pestilence 
commonly  called  Yellow  Fever,  which  almost  desolated  Philadel- 
phia, in  the  months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  1798.  Phila- 
delphia, 1799. 

Connecticut  State  Medical  Society  Proceedings,  from  1792  to  1829. 

Currie,  William,  M.D.  An  Impartial  Review  of  that  part  of  Dr. 
Rush's  late  publication,  entitled  "  An  Account  of  the  Bilious  Re- 
mitting Yellow  Fever,  as  it  appeared  in  the  City  of  Philadelphia  in 
the  year  1793,  which  treats  of  the  origin  of  the  disease."  In  which 
his  opinion  is  shewn  to  be  erroneous ;  the  importation  of  the  disease 
established ;  and  the  wholesomeness  of  the  city  vindicated.  Phila- 
delphia, 1794. 

Currie,  William,  M.D.  Memoirs  of  the  Yellow  Fever,  which 
prevailed  in  Philadelphia,  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  in  the  summer  and  autumn  of  the  present  year  1798.  Phila- 
delphia, 1798. 

Currie,  William,  M.D.  A  Description  of  the  Malignant,  In- 
fectious Fever  prevailing  at  present  in  Philadelphia;  with  an  Ac- 
count of  the  means  to  prevent  infection,  and  the  remedies  and 
methods  of  treatment,  which  have  been  found  most  successful. 
Philadelphia,  1793. 

Currie,  William,  M.D.  A  Sketch  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
Yellow  Fever,  and  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Health,  in 
Philadelphia,  in  the  year  1799;  To  which  is  added,  A  Collection  of 
Facts  and  Observations  respecting  the  Origin  of  the  Yellow  Fever 
in  this  Country;  and  a  Review  of  different  modes  of  treating  it. 
Philadelphia,  1800. 


522  APPENDIX    D. 

Coxe,  John  Redman,  M.D.  A  Short  View  of  the  Importance  and 
Respectability  of  the  Science  of  Medicine.  Read  before  the  Phila- 
delphia Medical  Society  on  the  7th  of  February,  1800.  Philadelphia, 
1800. 

Dalton,  John  C,  M.D.  History  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  of  New  York ;  Medical  Department  of  Columbia  College. 
New  York,  1888. 

Deveze,  Jean.  An  Enquiry  into,  and  Observations  upon  the  Causes 
and  Efifects  of  the  Epidemic  Disease  which  raged  in  Philadelphia 
from  the  month  of  August  till  towards  the  middle  of  December, 
1793-  By  Jean  Deveze,  Master  in  Surgery,  from  Cape  Frangais, 
Physician  of  the  Hospital  at  Bush  Hill,  Surgeon-Major  and  Prin- 
cipal Physician  of  the  Military  Hospital  established  by  the  French 
Republic  at  Philadelphia.     Philadelphia,  1794. 

Earle,  Alice  Morse.     Fashions  in  Old  New  England.     New  York, 

1893. 

Facts  and  Observations  relative  to  the  Nature  and  Origin  of  the 
Pestilential  Fever,  which  prevailed  in  the  City  of  Philadelphia,  in 
1793.  I797>  and  1798.  By  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia, 
1799. 

Green,  S.  A.  A  Centennial  Address  delivered  before  the  Massa- 
chusetts Medical  Society,  June  7,  1881.     Boston,  1881. 

Griscom,  John  H.,  M.D.  A  History  Chronological  and  Circum- 
stantial of  the  Visitations  of  Yellow  Fever  at  New  York.     1857. 

Henry,  Frederick  P.,  M.D.  The  Standard  History  of  the  Medical 
Profession  in  Philadelphia.     Chicago,  1897. 

Hildeburn,  C.  R.  The  Issues  of  the  Press  in  Pennsylvania,  1685 
to  1784. 

Holmes,  O.  W.,  M.D.  Address  delivered  at  the  One  Hundredth 
Anniversary  of  the  Foundation  of  the  Medical  School  of  Harvard 
University,  October  17,  1883.    Cambridge,  Mass.,  1884. 

Hosack,  David,  M.D.  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Origin,  Progress 
and  Present  State  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  the 
University  of  New  York.  American  Medical  and  Philosophical 
Register,  1814,  vol.  iv. 

Hutchinson,  Lieutenant-Governor.  The  History  of  the  Province 
of  Massachusetts  Bay.    London,  1765. 

Josselyn,  John.  An  Account  of  Two  Voyages  to  New  England. 
London,  1694.  Massachusetts  Historical  Society's  Collections,  third 
series,  vol.  iii. 

Lettsom,  Doctor.     Recollections  of  Dr.  Rush.     London,  181 5. 

Love,  W.  De  Loss.  The  Fast  and  Thanksgiving  Days  of  New 
England.     Boston,  1895. 


APPENDIX    D.  523 

Massachusetts  Historical  Society's  Collections  and  Proceedings. 

McSherry,  James.  History  of  Maryland  from  its  First  Settlement 
in  1634  to  the  Year  1848.     Baltimore,  1849. 

Meigs,  J.  Forsyth,  M.D.  A  History  of  the  First  Quarter  of  the 
Second  Century  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.     Philadelphia,  1877. 

Minutes  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Committee  appointed  on  the 
14th  September,  1793,  by  the  Citizens  of  Philadelphia,  etc.,  to  attend 
and  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the  afflicted  with  the  Malignant  Fever, 
prevalent  in  the  City  and  its  Vicinity.     Philadelphia,  1794. 

Morgan,  John.  M.D.  A  Vindication  of  his  Public  Character  in 
the  station  of  Director-General  of  the  Military  Hospitals  and  Physi- 
cian in  Chief  to  the  American  Army;    Anno  1776.    Boston,  1776. 

Morton.  T.  G.,  M.D.,  assisted  by  Frank  Woodbury,  M.D.  The 
History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.  Publication  authorized  by 
the  Contributors  and  directed  by  the  Board  of  Managers.  Phila- 
delphia, 1895. 

Nassey,  D.  Observations  on  the  Cause,  Nature  and  Treatment 
of  the  Epidemic  Disorder,  Prevalent  in  Philadelphia.     Philadelphia, 

1793- 

New  York  Hospital,  An  Account  of  the.    New  York,  1820. 

Norris,  George  W.,  M.D.  The  Early  History  of  Medicine  in 
Philadelphia.     Philadelphia,  1886. 

The  Philadelphia  Almshouse.  History  and  Remembrances  of  the 
Philadelphia  Almshouse  and  Hospital,  by  D.  Hayes  Agnew,  Alfred 
Stille,  Lewis  P.  Bush,  Charles  K.  Mills,  and  Roland  G.  Curtin. 
Philadelphia,  1890. 

Pennsylvania  Hospital.  Some  Account  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital;  from  its  First  Rise  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Fifth  Month, 
called  May,  1754.     Philadelphia,  1834. 

Redman,  Dr.  John.  An  Account  of  the  Yellow  Fever  as  it  pre- 
vailed in  Philadelphia  in  the  autumn  of  1762.  A  paper  presented  to 
the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia,  at  its  stated  meeting 
September  7,  1793.     Published  by  order  of  the  College,  1865. 

Report  of  the  Senate  Committee  on  Military  Affairs  and  the 
Militia,  to  whom  was  referred  the  petition  of  Dr.  William  T.  G. 
Morton,  asking  compensation  for  the  discovery  and  gift  to  his 
country  and  mankind  of  the  application  of  ethereal  vapor  as  a 
safe  and  practical  anaesthetic,  or  pain-subduing  agent.  February 
14,  1863. 

Rice,  Nathan  P.  Trials  of  a  Public  Benefactor,  as  illustrated  in 
the  Discovery  of  Etherization.     New   York,   1859. 

Ruschenbcrger,  W.  S.  W.  An  Account  of  the  Institution  and 
Progress  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia.  Philadelphia, 
1887. 


524  APPENDIX    D. 

Rush,  Benjamin,  M.D.  Observations  upon  the  Origin  of  the 
Malignant  Bilious,  or  Yellow  Fever,  in  Philadelphia,  and  upon  the 
means  of  preventing:  Addressed  to  the  Citizens  of  Philadelphia  by 
Benjamin  Rush.    Philadelphia,  1799. 

Rush,  Benjamin,  M.D.  A  Second  Address  to  the  Citizens  of 
Philadelphia,  containing  additional  proofs  of  the  Domestic  Origin 
of  the  Malignant  Bilious,  or  Yellow  Fever.  To  which  are  added 
Observations  intended  to  shew  that  a  belief  in  that  opinion,  is 
calculated  to  lessen  the  mortality  of  the  Disease.    Philadelphia,  1799. 

Rush,  Benjamin,  M.D.  An  Enquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  late 
Epidemic  Fever  in  Philadelphia;  in  a  letter  to  Dr.  John  Redman. 
Philadelphia,  1793. 

Rush,  Benjamin,  M.D.  An  Account  of  the  Bilious  Remitting  and 
Intermitting  Yellow  Fever,  as  it  appeared  in  Philadelphia  in  the 
year  1794.     Philadelphia,  1794. 

Rush,  Benjamin,  M.D.  An  Account  of  the  Bilious  Remitting  Yel- 
low Fever  in  1793.     Philadelphia,  1794. 

Sachse,  J.  F.    The  German  Pietists  of  Provincial  Pennsylvania. 

Saffell,  W.  T.  R.  Records  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  New  York, 
1858. 

Seaman,  Valentine,  M.D.  An  Account  of  the  Epidemic  Yellow 
Fever,  as  it  appeared  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  the  Year  1795. 
New  York,  1796. 

The  Semi-Centennial  of  Anaesthesia :  October  16,  1846,  October  16, 
1896.    Massachusetts  General  Hospital,  1897. 

Stryker,  W.  A.  Official  Register  of  the  Officers  and  Men  of  New 
Jersey  in  the  Revolutionary  War.     Trenton,  N.  J.,  1872. 

Thacher,  James.  American  Medical  Biography,  or  Memoirs  of 
Eminent  Physicians  who  have  flourished  in  America.     Boston,  1828. 

Thomas,  Isaiah.     History  of  Printing  in  America. 

Toner,  Joseph  M.,  M.D.  Contributions  to  the  Annals  of  Medical 
Progress.    Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Toner,  Joseph  M.,  M.D.  The  Medical  Men  of  the  Revolution. 
An  Address  before  the  Alumni  Association  of  Jefferson  Medical 
College,  Philadelphia,  March  11,  1876.     Philadelphia,  1876. 

Warren,   Edward,   M.D.     Life  of  John  Warren,   M.D.     Boston, 

1874. 

Watson,  John  F.  Annals  of  Philadelphia  and  Pennsylvania. 
Second  Edition.     Philadelphia,  1844. 

Webster,  Noah.  A  Brief  History  of  Epidemics  and  Pestilential 
Diseases ;  with  the  Principal  Phenomena  of  the  Physical  World 
which  Precede  and  Accompany  them,  and  Observations  deduced  from 
the  Facts  stated.    2  vols.    Hartford,  Conn.,  1799. 


APPENDIX    E.  525 

Webster,  Noah.  A  Collection  of  Papers  on  the  subject  of  Bilious 
Fevers,  Prevalent  in  the  United  States  for  a  few  years  past.  Com- 
piled by  Noah  Webster,  New  York,  1796. 

Wickes,  Stephen,  M.D.  History  of  Medicine  in  New  Jersey. 
Newark,  1879. 

Whitely,  W.  G.  The  Revolutionary  Soldiers  of  Delaware. 
Printed  by  order  of  the  Legislature  of  Delaware,  1875. 

Winthrop,  John.  History  of  New  England  from  1630  to  1640. 
Edited  by  James  Savage,  Boston,  1825. 

Wood,  George  B.,  M.D.  Historical  and  Biographical  Memoirs, 
Essays,  Addresses,  etc.  etc.     Philadelphia,  1872. 


APPENDIX    E. 


A   LIST  OF  THE   MORE   PROMINENT   MEDICAL   SOCIETIES   FOUNDED  IN   THE 
UNITED  STATES  FROM   THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  YEAR   1825. 

1.  1735.    A  Medical  Society  in  Boston  (extinct). 

2.  I749(?).    A  Weekly   (Medical)    Society  of  Gentlemen  in  New 

York   (extinct). 

3.  1765.     The  Philadelphia  Medical  Society  (extinct). 

4.  1766.     The  Medical  Society  of  New  Jersey  (still  existing). 

5.  I769(?).     A  Medical  Society  in  New  York  City  (extinct). 

6.  1780.    The  Boston  Medical  Society  (extinct). 

7.  1781.    The  Massachusetts  Medical  Society  (in  existence). 

8.  1783.     The  American  Medical  Society   (extinct). 

9.  1783.     The  Medical   Society  of  New  Haven  County    (in  exist- 

ence). 

10.  1787.     The  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia  (in  existence). 

11.  1789.     The   Philadelphia  Medical   Society    (extinct). 

12.  1789.     The  Medical  Society  of  South  Carolina. 

13-  1789.     The  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  Delaware  (in  exist- 
ence). 

14.  1791.     The  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society   (in  existence). 

15.  1792.     The  Connecticut  State  Medical  Society   (in  existence). 

16.  1797.     The  Academy  of  Medicine  of  Philadelphia  (extinct). 

17.  1798.     The   Medical    and    Chirurgical    Faculty   of   the    State   of 

Maryland  (in  existence). 

18.  1804.     The  Georgia  Medical  Society. 

19.  1806.     The  Medical  Society  of  the  County  of  Albany,  New  York. 

20.  1806.     The  Medical  Society  of  the  County  of  New  York. 

21.  1807.     The  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  New  York. 


526 


APPENDIX    E. 


22. 

181I. 

23- 

1812. 

24. 

1812. 

25- 

1814. 

26. 

1815. 

27. 

1819. 

28. 

182 1. 

29. 

1822. 

Boylston  Medical  Society. 

Societe  Medicale  de  la  Nouvelle  Orleans. 

The  Rhode  Island  Medical  Society. 

The  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  Vermont. 

Physico-Medical  Society  of  New  York. 

The  Michigan  State  Medical  Society. 

The  Medical  Society  of  Virginia. 

The  Medical  Society  of  Kings  County,  New  York. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Academy  of  Medicine  of  Philadelphia 143 

Adams,  Amos 75 

Adams,  John 85,  86 

Adams,    Samuel 269 

Alcock,    Sarah 58 

Alexander,  Dr.  Nathaniel 241 

Allison,    Dr.    Francis 292 

Alricks,  Director  of  New  Amstel 15 

American  Medical  Society 391  . 

American  medical  students  in  Edinburgh 156 

American  plague  (yellow  fever) 113 

Anaesthesia,   discovery  of 466 

Anatomical    Society   of   Harvard    Students 228 

Archer,  Dr.  John 175 

Armstrong,  James 208 

Armstrong,  John 438 

Arnold,    Jonathan 238 

Arnold,  Ruth 57 

Asheton,  Dr.   Ralph 157 

Aspinwall,  Dr.  William 244 

Atwood,  Doctor 61 

Autopsies 62 

Ayrault,   Pierre 44 

Bagnall,  Dr.  Anthony 13 

Baldwin,  Dr.  Cornelius 285 

Baltimore,  yellow  fever  in 140 

Barbadoes  Distemper    (yellow  fever) no 

Bard,   Dr.  John 163,  165 

Bard,  Samuel 218,  360.  447,  448 

Barnaby.    Ruth 57 

Barnett,  Dr.  William 87 

Bartlett,  Dr.  John 274,  299,  302 

Bartlett,  Dr.  Joshua 234 

Bartlett,  Dr.  Josiah 237 

Bartlett,   Dr.    Moses 44 

5^7 


528  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Barton,  Dr.  B.  S 216 

Beardsley,  Dr.  Ebenezer 100,  320 

Beattie,   Dr.   John 239 

Beekman,    Gerardus 46 

Bellingham,  Dr.  Samuel 35 

Bethlehem,    Pennsylvania 284,  287,  289 

Bibliography  of  medical  works  published  prior  to  the  Revolution  429 

Bilious  plague   (yellow  fever) 104,  114 

Binney,  Doctor 299 

Birde,   Mr 26 

Blackwell,  Rev.   Francis 65 

Bland,    Theodoric 240 

Bohun,  Dr.  Lawrence 13 

Bond,  Dr.   Phineas 330 

Bond,    Dr.    Thomas 166,  176,  201,  328,  330 

Bond,  Dr.  Thomas,  Jr 280,  301 

Boston,  diphtheria  epidemic  in 96 

erection  of  inoculation  hospitals  at 92 

inoculation  for  smallpox  introduced  in 76 

medical   societies   in 375, 395 

Bowen,  Ephraim,  Pardon,  Richard,  and  William 44 

Boylston,  Dr.  Zabdiel 77.  432 

Bradford,   Governor 17,  69,  71 

Breakbone  fever 105 

Brevard,  Dr.  Ephraim 241 

Broadwell,    Mrs.   Mary 57, 435 

Brooks,  Dr.  John 236 

Brown,   Jabez 45 

Brown,  John 437 

Brown,  Dr.  William 289,  292 

Brownson,  Doctor 243 

Bruce,  Dr.  A 222 

Buchan,  Dr.  William 450 

Bunker  Hill,  surgeons  at 247 

Burnett,  Dr.  William 274 

Burning   ague 102 

Cadagan  (also  Cadogan) ,  William 448,  449 

Cadwalader,  Dr.  Thomas 165,  438 

Carey,  Mathew 129 

Carson,  Dr.  John 216 

Cathrall,  Dr.  Isaac 121 

Cerebro-spinal    meningitis 103 


INDEX.  529 

PAGE 

Chalmers,  Dr.  Lionel 446 

Charleston,  South  Carolina 93 

Charlestown,  Massachusetts 73 

Chauncey,   Dr.    Charles 36 

Chovet,  Dr.  Abraham 185,  187 

Church,   Dr.    Benjamin 189,  257,  445,  449 

Clark,  Dr.  John 44 

Clinton,  Governor 83 

Clossy,   Dr.   Samuel 218 

Coates,   Samuel 150,  343. 349 

Cochran,  Dr.  John 274, 275,  300 

Codes  of  Ethics 427 

Colden,  Dr.  Cadwallader 102,  164,  431,  437, 444 

Cole,   Dr.   Benjamin 437 

College  of  Philadelphia  (University  of  Pennsylvania)  . .    190  et  seq. 
College    of    Physicians    and    Surgeons    of    New    York 

(King's   College) 217  et  seq. 

College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia 409  ^^  ^eq. 

Colman,  Benjamin 432,  435,  437 

Columbia   College 225,  368 

Commor,  Jacob  D 46 

Connecticut  State  Medical  Society 403 

Connecticut  State  Military  Hospital 277 

Continental  army  hospitals 278,  291,  292 

Cooke,  Edward 26 

Cooper,    William 437 

Corbitant    18 

Corey,    Giles 63 

Cowell,    Benjamin 204 

Cox,  Daniel 49 

Coxe,  Dr.  John  Redman 91.  217 

Craik,  Dr.  James 275,  295 

Cranston,  Captain  John 44 

Crawford,    Doctor 9^ 

Crosby,  Joshua 330 

Gumming,  Dr.  John 228,  245 

Curtis,   Alexander 4^ 

Cutter,  Dr.  A.  R 274 

Cynanche  trachealis    (diphtheria) 9^ 

Dalhonde,   Dr.   Lawrence 80,  108 

Dartmouth  College 332 

Dawne,  Dr.   Darby 434 

34 


530  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Deeping,  William 14 

De  Huise,  Doctor 46 

Delaware  laws  regulating  practice  of  medicine 464 

Delaware,   Lord 13 

Deveze,    Dr.   Jean 121,  129 

Dewees,    Doctor 189 

DeWitt,   Dr.   Benjamin 220, 222 

Dexter,  Dr.  Aaron 230 

Dexter,  Dr.  William 245 

Dickinson,  Dr.  John 239 

Dickinson,  Jonathan 49 

Dimsdale,  T 448 

Diploma  of  Dr.  Archer 161 

Diplomas  in  medicine  first  granted 160 

Diphtheria  epidemics 96  et  seq. 

"  Doctors'  Mob" 364 

Douglass,  Dr.  William 64,  96,  102,  375,  Z7^,  433.  435. 437 

Downer,  Dr.  Eliphalet 245 

Drake,  Dr.  Daniel 164 

Drowne,  Dr.   Samuel 363 

Duffield,  Dr.  Benjamin 189 

Duffield,  Dr.  John 204 

Dupuy,  Dr.  John 60 

Dutch  colonies  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 14 

Dutch  West  India  Company 14 

Dyer,   Marj- 100 

Dysentery   epidemics icx) 

Eaton,  Theophilus 24 

Edinburgh,  American  medical  students  in 156 

Elgin  Botanical  Garden 221 

Eliot,  John 34, 95 

Elmer,  Dr.  Jonathan 204, 210,  449 

Ely,  Dr.  John 90 

Emerson,   Joseph 437 

Endicott,   John 12,  17,  25 

Endicot,  Dr.  Zorobbabel 63 

Essex  County  Court  Records 63 

Ether  anaesthesia,  claims  of  Wells,  Jackson,  and  Marcy 466 

demonstrated  by  Morton 477 

used  by  Long 4^ 

Ettwein.  Rev.  ilr 286,  292 

Eustis,  Dr.  William 236 


INDEX.  531 

PAGE 

Ewing,  Dr.  John 216 

Ewings,   William 228 

Fairfield,  Connecticut 95 

Fast-days   for   sickness +2,  75 

Firmin,    Giles 34 

Fisk,  Dr.  John 35 

Fiske,  Dr.  Phineas 43 

Fitch,   Dr.   Jabez 437 

Forgue,   Doctor 274 

Foster,  Dr.  Isaac 274 

Fothergill,   Doctor 171,  SSS^  361,  409 

Foulke,  Dr.  John 188 

Franklin,  Dr.  Benjamin,  "  Account  of  Inoculation" 80,  106 

"  Account  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital" 442 

association  with  College  of  Philadelphia 212 

association  with  Pennsylvania  Hospital 328,337 

Freeman,  Dr.  Nathaniel 237 

Fuller,  Bridget 51 

Fuller,    Matthew 37 

Fuller,  Samuel 16,  73 

Fullerton,  Humphrey 204 

Gager,  William 35 

Garden,  Dr.  Alexander 443 

Gardiner,  Dr.  Sylvester 90,  3/6,  443>  446 

Gelston,  Dr.  Samuel 88 

Geodinean,    Giles 46 

Gerard's  Herbal 19 

Gibbon,  Dr.  John  H 189 

Girard,   Stephen 128 

Girard,  Mrs.  Stephen 340 

Glentworth,   Doctor 90 

Glover,  Dr.  John 35 

Goodson,  John 16 

Gookin,  Daniel 69 

Gordon,  Charles  and  John 47 

Gorges,   Sir  Ferdinando 7i 

Grainger,  Mr 432 

Green,   Doctor 5° 

Greenland,  Dr.  Henry 35 

Griffitts,  Dr.  S.  P 216 

Grosvenor,  Benjamin 443 

Gulstone,  Doctor 14 


532  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Hall,  Josias  Carroll 208 

Hall,  Dr.  Lyman 234,  243 

Hall,  Rev.  Samuel 436 

Hamden,   John 32 

Hamilton,  Alexander 135 

Hamilton,  Dr.  Alexander 440 

Hammell,  John 253 

Harvard  College 36 

anatomical   society  of   students 228 

library  burnt 227 

medical   department 227 

Medical  Society 395 

Harward,   Thomas 436 

Hawkins,   Jane 56 

Hays,   William 45 

Hayward,  Dr.  Lemuel 253 

Heath,  General 296 

Heberdeen,  Dr.  William 80 

Hersey,  Dr.  Abner 228 

Hersey,  Dr.  Ezekiel 227 

Higginson,    Rev.    Francis 66 

Hoar,  Dr.  Leonard 36 

Hobbamock    32 

Hodge,  John 208 

Holbrook,  Dr.  Amos 92 

Holmes,  Dr.  O.  W.,  anecdotes  of  Harvard  professors 230 

letter  suggesting  the  term  "  anaesthesia" 480 

publishes  Stafford  manuscript 18 

Holyoke,  Edward  Augustus 399 

Hooker,  Rev.  Thomas 12 

Hosack,  Dr.  David 220 

Hospitals  of  Continental  army  in  Albany 276 

in   Bethlehem 278 

in    Connecticut 277 

in   Fishkill 277 

in  Peekskill 277 

in  Philadelphia 278 

in  Princeton 284 

in   Providence 295 

in  Virginia 294 

returns  of 282,  291 

Hotel  Dieu,  in  Paris 362 

Houston,  John 208 


INDEX.  533 

PAGE 

Hubbard's  account  of  the  influenza  in  1655 95 

Hughes,  D.  J 46 

Hunter,  Dr.  William 167 

Hutchinson,  Anne 52 

Hutchinson,  Dr.  James 119,  212,  216,  299 

Hydrophobia  epidemic loi 

Indians,  diseases  of 27,  29 

Influenza  epidemic 94 

Inoculation  against  smallpox ^^ 

hospitals   for 83,  87, 88,  90 

introduction  into  America 76 

pamphlets   concerning 432 

riot  against  Essex  Hospital  on  account  of 89 

Irvine,  Dr.   William 239 

Jackson,  Dr.  Charles  T 466 

Jackson,  David 204 

Jackson,    Dr.   James 91 

Jansen,  Annetje 59 

Jansen,  Isaac 45 

James,   Dr.  T.   C 189,217 

Jamestown,  Virginia 12, 67 

Jones,  Dr.  Edward 47 

Jones,  Evan 48 

Jones,  Dr.  John 48, 218,  320,  360,  444,  451 

Jones,  Margaret 58 

Jones,  Dr.  N.  W 243 

Jones,  Dr.  Walter 241,  274 

Josselyn,  John 26,  62,  65 

Kearsley,    Dr.   John 49,  89,  440,  443 

Kearsley,  Dr.  John,  Jr 448 

Kerfbyle,  Dr.  Johannes 46 

Kieft,   William 45 

Kierstedt,  Dr.  Hans 45,  59 

King's  College  Medical  School 218 

Kingston,  diphtheria  epidemic  in 98 

Kissam,  Dr.  Samuel 219 

Knox,  Samuel 395 

Kuhn,   Dr.    Adam I34,  206,  207,  213 

Lawrence,   John 204 

Lawson,  John 29 


534  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Lee,  Dr.  Arthur 241 

Leete,  William 25,  35 

Legislation  on  medical  affairs 452 

Le  Montague,  Johannes 45 

Lexington,  surgeons  at  the  battle  of 244 

Linning,  Dr.  John 125,  437,  441 

Lithotomy,  operation  by  Dr.  Gardiner 2;J^ 

Little,  Thomas,  and  Thomas,  Jr 37 

Lloyd,  Dr.  James 6l 

Lloyd,   Thomas 47,  48 

Lockhart,  Doctor 46 

Logan,   James 164 

Long,  Dr.  C.  W 467 

Ludovick,  Dr.  C 431 

MacLeane,   Dr.   Laughlin 90,  442 

Maddox,  Rev.  Isaac 441 

Mallenancy,  Jacob 45 

Marcy,    Doctor 466 

Marshall,  Christopher 281 

Maryland  laws  regulating  practice  of  medicine 464 

Massachusetts,  epidemic  among  Indians  of 69 

Massachusetts  laws  regulating  practice  of  medicine 455 

Massachusetts  Medical  Society 91,  395,  401 

Massachusetts  Provincial  Congress 251,  254,  255 

Massasoit    32 

Mather,  Cotton 63,  76, 431, 432 

Mather,   Increase 433,  434 

McNeven,    Doctor 222 

Measles,  epidemics  of 93 

Medical  School  of  King's  College,  New  York 217 

Medical  Societies 375 

American  Medical  Society 391 

Boston  Medical  Society 395 

College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia 400 

Connecticut  State  Medical  Society 403 

Delaware  State  Medical  Society 421 

Harvard  Anatomical  Society 395 

list  of 525 

Massachusetts  Medical  Society 395 

Medical  and  Chirurgical  Faculty  of  the  State  of  Mary- 
land      427 

Medical  Collegium  of  the  Moravians 427 


INDEX.  535 

PAGE 

Medical  Societies: 

New  Hampshire  Medical  Society 421 

New  Haven  Medical  Society 402 

New  Jersey  Medical  Society 378 

New  York  Medical  Society 391 

Philadelphia  Medical  Society 377 

Megapolensis,    Samuel 45 

Mercer,   Dr.   Hugh 240 

Meyer,    Dr.    Adolph 292 

Middleton,    Dr.    Peter 155,  218,  360,  446 

Midwives    50 

Miller,    Doctor 91 

Miller,  Dr.   Edward 220 

Milton,  Massachusetts 92 

Minot,  Dr.  Timothy 245 

Mitchell,  Dr.  John 50,  1 14,  134,  446 

Mitchell,  Dr.  S.  L 220,  222 

Montague,  Lady  Mary  Wortley 76 

Moravians'  houses  seized  for  army  hospitals 285 

Morgan,  Dr.  John,  appointed  director-general  and  chief  physi- 
cian of  the  Continental  army 259 

"  Discourse  upon  the  Institution  of  Medical   Schools" 

193,  444 

dismissed  by   Congress 265 

efforts  to  found  a  college  of  physicians 409 

interview  with  Samuel  Adams 269 

letters  to  Dr.   Warren 261,  302,  307,  308 

Professor  of  Medicine  in  University  of  Pennsylvania. .   193 

publishes  his  "  Vindication" 266,  319 

quarrel  with  Dr.   Shippen 268 

trip  to  West  Indies 210 

vindicated  by  Congress 273 

Morley,   Robert 11 

Morris,    Deborah 353 

Morton,  W.  T.  G 473 

Mott,  Dr.  Valentine 226 

Moultrie,  Dr.  John 61 

Mowbray,    Doctor 82 

New  Haven  County  Medical  Society 402 

New  Jersey  laws  regulating  the  practice  of  medicine 462 

New  Jersey  Medical   Society 37^  ^^  ^<^n- 

New  York  City  Dispensary 372 


536  INDEX. 

PAGE 

New  York  Hospital 359 

built   362 

care  of  the  insane  in 368 

"  Doctors'  Mob" 364 

first  surgical  operation  in 363 

income   366,  367 

incorporated  360 

maternity  ward 367 

projected  by  Dr.  Bard 360 

relations  with  Columbia  College 368 

reopened   365 

situation   of 366 

used  as  barracks 363 

New  York  Institute  for  the  Inoculation  of  the  Kine  Pock 374 

New  York  laws  regulating  the  practice  of  medicine 459 

New  York  Medical   Society 377 

New  York  ordinance  governing  midwives 59 

New  York,  yellow   fever  in 113,  114,  139 

Norfolk,  Virginia,  yellow  fever  in 140 

North  Carolina  laws  regulating  practice  of  medicine 465 

Ogden,  Dr.  Jacob 447 

Oliphant,  Dr.  David 242 

Oliver,   John 43 

Oliver,  Thomas 2>1 

Costing,  Jan i5 

Owen,   Griffith 48 

Parch,   Jan   du 46 

Patuxet,   plague  at 69 

Pau,  John 45 

Penn,    Richard 330 

Penn,   Thomas 192,  330,  409 

Penn,   William 48,  66 

Pennsylvania  Hospital 321 

admission   of   patients 33i>  335,  342 

anecdotes  of  patients 350 

as  a  medical  school i74 

attending  physicians  and  surgeons Z'JiZy  334 

Benjamin  Franklin  and  the  Hospital 328 

care  of  insane  patients 338,  345 

clinical  lectures  of  Dr.  Bond '^17 

consulting  physicians 333 


INDEX.  537 

PAGE 

Pennsylvania  Hospital,  donation  to,  by  Dr.  Fothergill 354 

founded  by  Dr.  Bond 328 

library   35i 

museum 353 

lying-in   ward 352,  355 

medical  apprentices 356 

removal  to  present  site 336 

Pennsylvania  laws  regulating  the  practice  of  medicine 461 

Percival,   Dr.  Thomas 428 

Percy,  George 68 

Peterson,   Jan 14 

Pharmacopoeia 292,  401,  416 

Philadelphia,  College  of  Physicians  of 409 

Dispensary   37i 

Hospital    321 

Humane  Society 37i 

introduction  of  inoculation  in 81 

introduction  of  vaccination  in 89,  91 

measles  epidemic  in 93 

Medical  Society 377 

scarlet  fever  epidemic  in 94 

Society  for  Inoculating  the  Poor 90 

yellow  fever  in 112, 114,  117,  n8,  136, 141, 144,  154 

Phillips,   Mrs.   Elizabeth 57 

Physick,  Dr.   P.   S 217 

Pierson,  Abraham 49 

Pleurisy  epidemics loi 

Plymouth,    Massachusetts 16,  32, 69 

"  Poor   Planter's   Physician" 435 

Pot,  Dr.  John 13 

Potts,  Dr.  Jonathan 204,  210, 263,  264 

Pratt,  Mr 12 

Pratt,   Thomas 208 

Prescott,   Dr.   Oliver,  Jr 245 

Price,    Doctor 189 

Priestley,  Doctor 216 

Prince,  Rev.  Thomas 439 

Printing  in  America 429 

Providence,  Rhode  Island 143.  295 

Provincial   Congress  of  Massachusetts 234,  251 

Purnell,   John 394 

Puritans,  prayer  in  time  of  sickness 40 

Pylarini,    Doctor 76 


538  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Quacks   in   New    York 162 

Ramsay,  David 242 

Redman,  Dr.  John 90, 114 

Regents  of  the  University  of  New  York 220, 223 

Revolution,  the  medical  profession  in  the 233 

Rhode  Island  laws  regulating  the  practice  of  medicine 458 

Rickman,  Dr.  William 294 

Rogers,  Uriah 86 

Romayne,  Dr.  Nicholas 220 

Roxbury  Church  Records 62 

Royal  Society  of  Great  Britain 24 

Rush,  Dr.  Benjamin,  "  Address  on  Slavery" 449 

appointed  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  College  of  Phila- 
delphia    206 

appointed  Professor  of  Medicine  in  College  of  Phila- 
delphia    206 

appointed    surgeon   general   of    middle    department   of 

Continental   army 274 

descriptions  of  yellow  fever 117,  118 

"  Directions  for  preserving  the  Health  of  Soldiers". ...  319 

letter  about,  by  Thomas  Penn 207 

medical  education  of 163 

"  Medicine  among  the  Indians  of  North  America" 450 

"  Observations  on  Angina  Maligna" 447 

"  Observations  on  Mineral  Waters  of  Philadelphia" ....  449 

quarrel  with  Dr.   Ross 143 

"  Sermons  to  Gentlemen  on  Temperance  and  Exercise"  449 

signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 234 

"  tranquillizer"  devised  by 349 

treatment  of  yellow  fever 134 

Rush,  John I43 

Russel,  Dr.  Walter 13 

Saltonstall,  Dr.  Henry 35 

Salem,  Massachusetts 12, 17 

Salem,  New  Jersey 59 

Samoset,  the  Indian 69 

Scarlet  fever  epidemics 94 

Schult,   Gerritt 45 

Schuyler,    General 264,  265 

Scott,  Dr.  Moses 289 

Seabury,    Samuel Z7 


INDEX.  539 

PAGE 

Sewall,  Judge 40,  60,  63,  lii 

Shippen,   Dr.   William 239 

Shippen,  Dr.  William,  Jr.,  accepts  professorship  in  University 

of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania 212 

aids  in   founding  medical  school  of   College  of  Phila- 
delphia     192 

anatomical  lectures 163,  172 

appointed    director-general    and    physician-in-chief    of 

Continental  army 274 

appointed  professor  of  anatomy  and  obstetrics  in  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania 215 

establishes  army  hospitals  at  Bethlehem 285 

letter  to  Congress 289 

medical  education  of 167 

obstetrician  61 

obstetric  lectures  by 168 

quarrel  with  Dr.  Morgan 268 

Skinner,    Alexander 208 

Slaughter,  Governor 46 

Smallpox    74  ^^  seq. 

Smith,  Dr.  James 218 

Smith,  Dr.  J.  A 220 

Smith,   Captain  John 13 

Smith,  John 434 

Smith,  Dr.   William 289 

Smith,  Rev.  William 201 

Society  of  the  Hospital  of  the  City  of  New  York  in  America.  .  360 

Society  of  the  New  York  Hospital 37i 

South  Carolina  laws  regulating  the  practice  of  medicine 465 

Staats,  Dr.  Abraham 45 

Starr,  Comfort  and  Thomas 37 

Stafford,  Dr.  Ed 18 

Story,  Thomas 48 

Strachy,  William 67 

Stringer,  Dr.  Samuel 262, 265 

Syphilis,  first  appearance  of,  in  Boston 39 

Tennent,  Dr.  John 437 

Tennent,  Dr.  J.  V.   B 61, 218 

Thacher,  Dr.  James 251,  276,  401 

Thacher,  Thomas 75.  429 

Thieves'  vinegar 130 

Thomas,  Gabriel 47 


540  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Thompson,  Dr.  Adam 89,  440 

Thornton,  Dr.   Matthew 234,  238 

Throat   distemper    (diphtheria) 97,  98 

Tilton,  Dr.  James 203,  212,  284 

descriptions  of  Continental  army  hospitals 290,  294 

"Economical  Observations  on  Military  Hospitals" 319 

Timoni,    Doctor 76 

Tisquantum,  the  Indian 118 

Tissot,  S.  A 448 

Treat,  Dr.  Malachi 132,  274 

Treat,   Dr.    Samuel 159 

Trumbull,  J.  H 71 

Tucker,   Robert 219 

Tufts,  Dr.  Cotton 95 

Turner,  Daniel 160 

Turner,  Dr.   Philip 274,  277 

Turner,    William 149 

Tuscarora    Indians 29 

Tyneman,  Peter 15 

Typhus  fever 103 


University  of  Leyden 46 

University  of  Pennsylvania 190,  199,  203,  205,  209,  215 

University  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania 211 

University  of  Utrecht 45 

Vaccination 9°  ^i  ^eq. 

Valley  Forge,  Dr.  Waldo's  Diary  at 3^5 

Van  de  Bogaerdet,  Hermain  Mynderts 14 

Van  Imbroeck,  Gysbert 46 

Van  Raenberg,  William I5 

Varvanger,  Jacob  H 45 

Veeder,  Myndert 208 

Vines,    Captain 7i 

Virginia  laws  regulating  practice  of  medicine 452 

Vreucht,   Peter 45 


Waldo,    Albigence 3^4 

Walton,   John 436 

Ward,  Dr.  William 245 

Warren,   James °4 


INDEX.  541 

PAGE 

Warren,  Dr.  John,  account  of  hospitals  at  Cambridge 248 

affidavit  regarding  poisoning  of  medical  stores 304 

anatomical  lectures  in  army  hospital 229 

appointed  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  in  Har- 
vard     230 

letter  to  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts 303 

petition  to  Massachusetts  Legislature 212 

Warren,   Joseph 235 

Warren,    Mercy 84 

Washington,  General,  anxiety  to  improve  army  medical  service. .  305 

kindness  to  Dr.  Boyes  of  the  English  army 310 

letter  commending  Dr.   Cochran 275 

letter  to  Governor  Greene 295 

letter  regarding  surgeons'  shares  of  prize  money 309 

letter  to  Rev.  Mr.  Ettwein 292 

Washington,    Mrs 283 

Waterhouse,  Dr.  Benjamin 91,  230 

Watson,  account  of  yellow  fever  in  Philadelphia 132 

Way,  Dr.  Nicholas 210 

Welch,  Dr.  Thomas 245 

Weld,  Rev.  Thomas 52 

Wells,  Horace 466 

Wesley,  Dr.  John 447 

Wessagussett    18 

Wiesenthal,  Dr.  C.  F 165 

Wigglesworth,  Michael 38 

Williams,  John 433 

Williams,  Nathaniel 441 

Williamson,   Dr.   Hugh 241 

Wilson,  Dr.  John zi 

Wilson,   Lambert 12,  34 

Winder,  John 208 

Winslow,  Edward 32 

Winterbotham,  diseases  of  New  England yz 

Winthrop,  Governor 12,  18,  23,  37,  39,  53,  58,  64,  94 

Winthrop,  John,  Jr 24,  43 

Wistar,   Dr.    Caspar 215 

Witt,  Dr.  Christopher 158 

Wolcott,  Dr.  Oliver 234,  238 

Wood,  Dr.  George  B 212 

Woodhouse,  Dr.  James 216 

Woodward,    Doctor 76 

Wooton,  Dr.  Thomas 12 

Wynne,  Thomas 47 


542 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Yellow  fever no 

account  of,  by  Mathew  Carey 129 

account  of,  by  Dr.  John  Mitchell 114 

account  of,  by  Dr.  John  Redman 114 

account  of,  by  Dr.  Rush 118  et  seq. 

epidemic  in  Baltimore 140 

in  Boston 1 10,  1 1 1 

in  Charleston,  South  Carolina 112, 113, 140 

in  New  Haven 139 

in  New  London 154 

in  New  York 113, 114,  139 

in  Norfolk 140 

in    Philadelphia 112, 114, 118, 136, 141,  144, 154 

in   Virginia 113 

in  Wilmington 154 

treatment  of,  by  Dr.  Rush 134 


Zachary,  Dr.   Lloyd 330 


THE   END. 


39ii- 


DATE  DUE 

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,„  fiSfiY  I 

SZDii;. 

APf^ 

3  ZIHW' 

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OEMCO  38-296 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


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0041087070 


